Human immunodeficiency virus transmission

After reaching the lymph nodes, CD4+ cells are rapidly infected and replication of the virus continues. During the initial phase of infection, the virus is spread throughout the body via blood that contains many viral particles. The flu-like symptoms are first observed in about 70% of the patients 2-A weeks after HIV infection. At this stage, HIV titer is reduced due to the development of virus-specific CD8+ cells and due to humoral immune response, which generally causes a return to the normal numbers of CD4+ cells. As the HIV continues to replicate, a person may stay free of HIV-related symptoms for years. The high rate of mutation makes it impossible for the body to completely eliminate the HIV. Independent of mutation, certain subsets of HIV-recognizing killer T cells are not present or lack optimal function, and there is an inhibition of IFN secretion and cytotoxic T-cell activity due to impairment in the function of CD4+ cells. The HIV is also protected from immune surveillance when it hides within the chromosomes of the infected cells. 

Although the net effect of HIV infection is immunodeficiency, the infection generally results in the increased activation of the immune response but the overall impact of this immune hyperactivity is negative. The activated CD4+ cells play a pivotal role in the replication of the virus this activation of CD4+ cells enhances the secretion of various cytokines, some of which contribute to muscle wasting. A superactive humoral response against HIV impairs the body s ability to mount antibody response against other pathogens, and the activation of immune response 

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Patterson BK. Repertoire of chemokine receptor expression in the female genital tract implications for human immunodeficiency virus transmission. Am J Pathol 1998 153(2) 481-90. 

Patterson BK, Landay A, Andersson J, Brown C, Behbahani H, Jiyamapa D, Burki Z, Stanislawski D, Czerniewski MA, Garcia P (1998) Repertoire of chemokine receptor expression in the female genital tract implications for human immunodeficiency virus transmission. Am J Pathol 153 481-490 Penchansky L, Krause JR (1979) Identification of cytomegalovirus in bone marrow biopsy. Southern Medical Journal 72 500-501... 

Meddows-Taylor S, Donninger SL, Paximadis M, Schramm DB, Anthony FS, Gray GE, Kuhn L, Tiemessen CT (2006) Reduced abhity of newborns to produce CCL3 is associated with increased susceptibhity to perinatal human immunodeficiency virus 1 transmission. J Gen Virol 87 2055-2065... 

Byrn RA, Kiesshng AA (1998) Analysis of human immunodeficiency virus in semen indications of a genetically distinct virus reservoir. J Reprod Immunol 41(1-2) 161-176 Carr JM, Hocking H, Li P, Burrell CJ (1999) Rapid and efficient celL-to-ceU transmission of human immunodeficiency vims infection from monocyte-derived macrophages to peripheral blood lymphocytes. Virology 265(2) 319-329... 

Moore JP, Kitchen SG, Pugach P, Zack JA. The CCR5 and CXCR4 coreceptors—central to understanding the transmission and pathogenesis of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 2004 20(1) 111-126. 

It overcomes problems of product safety. Direct extraction of product from some native biological sources has, in the past, led to the unwitting transmission of disease. Examples include the transmission of blood-borne pathogens such as hepatitis B and C and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) via infected blood products and the transmission of Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease to persons receiving human growth hormone (GH) preparations derived from human pituitaries. 

Cameron, D. W, Simonsen, 1. N., D Costa, L. 1. et al. Female to male transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 risk factors for seroconversion in men. Lancet, 1989, 2, 403-407. 

Connor EM, Sperhng RS, Gelber R, Kiselev P, et al. 1994. Reduction of maternal-infant transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 with zidovudine treatment. Pediatric AIDS clinical trials group protocol, 076 study group. NEJM. 331 1173-1180. 

Sperling RS, Shapirom DE, Coombsm RW, Todd JA, et al. 1996. Maternal viral load, zidovudine treatment, and the risk of transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 from mother to infant. N Engl J Med. 335 1621-1629. 

Wang JH. Janas AM, Oson WJ, Kewal Ramani VN, et al. 2007. CD4 coexpression regulates DC-SIGN-mediated transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. J Virol. 81 2497-2507. 

Fichorova, R.N., L.D. Tucher, and D.J. Anderson. 2001. The molecular basis of nonoxynol-9-induced vaginal inflammation and its possible relevance to human immunodeficiency virus type I transmission. J Infect Dis 184 418. 

Zidovudine is a synthetic nucleoside analog that blocks replication of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) by inhibiting reverse transcriptase. The primary indication for zidovudine administration in newborns is the prevention of vertical transmission of HIV. Like chloramphenicol, zidovudine is eliminated in adults primarily by glucuronide conjugation, suggesting that newborns may have a reduced capacity to eliminate zidovudine. However, unlike... 

In the last 10 years, there has been great concern regarding the use of animal-derived excipients in pharmaceutical formulations. There is a possibility of contamination of an excipient by either an undetected virus [e.g., hepatitis C, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)] or prion that may cause transmissible... 

The transmission of viral infections by immunoglobulins has occasionally been suspected. However, intravenous immunoglobulin preparations are considered relatively safe, and there are no reports of transmission of HIV or hepatitis B (44,101). This is probably because of the high degree of viral inactivation of the cold ethanol fractionation and the screening of every donation for several viruses, such as HIV and hepatitis B and C (85). Of 56 patients with autoimmune diseases who received 167 infusions of intravenous immunoglobulin, none developed antibodies to human immunodeficiency virus and hepatitis C virus or hepatitis B surface antigen (12). 

Pearce-Pratt R, Phillips DM. Sulfated polysaccharides inhibit lymphocyte-to-epithelial transmission of human immunodeficiency virus-1. Biol Reprod 1996 53(1) 173-182. 

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Guidelines for Prevention of Transmission of Human Immunodeficiency Virus and Hepatitis B Virus of Health-Care and Pubhc Safety Workers. DHSS (NIOSH) Pubhcation No. 89-107. Washington DC ... 

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