High Salinity

A(jua.tlC Pollution. Aquatic pollution is of some concern from hydrothermal resources. The primary problem is the disposal of highly saline fluids from water-dominated reservoirs. This is generally overcome by pumping into deep reservoirs situated well beneath potable water sources. The fluid... 

Cross-linked xanthan gums have also been used to reduce the permeabiUty of thief 2ones. Trivalent chromium is the preferred cross-linker (54). Cross-linker effectiveness is less at high salinity. However, Cr(III) has been used ia the field at salinities as great as 166,000 ppm total dissolved soHds (55). 

Acrylamide—polymer/Ct(III)catboxylate gel technology has been developed and field tested in Wyoming s Big Horn Basin (211,212). These gels economically enhance oil recovery from wells that suffer fracture conformance problems. The Cr(III) gel technology was successful in both sandstone and carbonate formations, and was insensitive to H2S, high saline, and hard waters (212). 

The effects of cadmium may be modulated by environmental factors, including salinity and the presence of other compounds. The synergistic inhibition of limb regeneration in the hermit crab Uca pugilator caused by combinations of cadmium and methylmerciiry is only evident in water of high salinity. ... 

This simple formula does not apply to pH values over 9 0, and high salinities affect its accuracy. The term (pKj - pKJ is a function of temperature and ionic strength (dissolved solids). In an analysis of a given water at a constant temperature much useful information can be obtained from the equation. 

Adsorption and retention studies of surfactants to sand in high-salinity reservoirs showed no differences between nonionics and ether carboxylates [185— 187] low retention and a positive behavior for good oil recovery has been found. 

Ocean prevents eutrophication. Much more water flows into the Mediterranean Sea than is required to replace evaporation from it. The excess, high salinity water exits Gibraltar below the water flowing in af fhe surface. Nufrients that enter the Mediterranean Sea from pollution sources are utilized by marine phytoplankton that sinks and exits with the outflow. Another example is that estuaries often have lower salinity or even freshwater at the surface with a denser saline layer at the bottom. An estuarine circulation occurs with nutrients being trapped in the saline bottom water. 

Hofner, R., Vazquez-Morena, L., Winter, K., Bohnert, H.J. Schmitt, J.M. (1987). Induction of Crassulacean acid metabolism in Mesembryanthemum crystallinum by high salinity mass increase and de novo synthesis of PEP-carboxylase. Plant Physiology, 83, 915-19. 

Tal, M. Shannon, M.C. (1983). Salt tolerance in the wild relatives of the cultivated tomato responses of Lycopersicon esculentum, L. cheesmanii, L. peruvianum, Solanum pennellii and F, hybrids to high salinity. Australian Journal of Plant Physiology, 10, 109-17. 

High salinity of Kuroko ore fluids does not solely mean magmatic contribution. Instead salinity variation can be reasonably explained by subcritical boiling of fluids of seawater origin. 

Mixing of high temperature hydrothermal solution with high salinity and low temperature solution with low salinity of meteoric water origin seems the most likely mechanism for the base-metal vein-type deposition. 

D and 5 0 data on fluid inclusions and minerals, 8 C of carbonates, salinity of inclusion fluids together with the kind of host rocks indicate that the interaction of meteoric water and evolved seawater with volcanic and sedimentary rocks are important causes for the formation of ore fluids responsible for the base-metal vein-type deposits. High salinity-hydrothermal solution tends to leach hard cations (base metals, Fe, Mn) from the country rocks. Boiling may be also the cause of high salinity of base-metal ore fluids. However, this alone cannot cause very high salinity. Probably the other processes such as ion filtration by clay minerals and dissolution of halite have to be considered, but no detailed studies on these processes have been carried out. 

It is very notable that the curves for the common mineral assemblages at elevated temperatures (calcite-albite-sericite-K feldspar-quartz (mnjCOj = 10 ) and wairakite-albite-sericite-K-feldspar-quartz assemblage) are close to curve 2 in position. To the contrary, the curve for the mineral assemblage, albite-sericite-Na-montmorillonite-quartz, derived from the Na-K-Ca relationship obtained by Fournier and Truesdell (1973) is quite different in position from the other curves calculated and the Ca + concentration under high salinity conditions. 

The Okuaizu geothermal system is characterized by high temperatures (maximum 340°C), high salinity (about 2 wt% total dissolved solids (TDS)) and large amounts of non-condensable gases (1 wt% CO2 and 200 ppm H2S). The pH of the hydrothermal solution measured at 25°C is 6.44 (Table 2.6). However, the pH of the original fluid in the reservoir is computed to be 4.05. This pH as well as alkali and alkali earth element concentrations are plotted near the equilibrium curve of albite, K-mica, anhydrite and calcite (Fig. 2.19) (Seki, 1991). 

The Arima hot spring waters are classified into three types (1) Na-Ca-Cl type brine which is high in salinity and CO2 and medium to low in temperature (2) highly saline Na-Ca-Cl-type water of high temperature and low CO2 concentration and (3) dilute and C02-rich water of low temperature (Table 2.8). 

A fully automated instrumental procedure has been developed for analyzing residual corrosion inhibitors in production waters in the field. The method uses ultraviolet (UV) and fluorescence spectrophotometric techniques to characterize different types of corrosion inhibitors. Laboratory evaluations showed that fluorescence is more suitable for field application because errors from high salinity, contamination, and matrix effect are minimized in fluorescence analysis. Comparison of the automated fluorescence technique with the classic extraction-dye transfer technique showed definite advantages of the former with respect to ease, speed, accuracy, and precision [1658],... 

Complexing Agents. Delayed gelation can be achieved by adding complex-ing agents to the mixture. The metal ions are initially complexed. Therefore all components of the gelling composition can be injected simultaneously. It is possible to dissolve the mixture in produced brines that have high salinity. The use of produced brines eliminates the need to treat or dispose of the brines. 

Ground water with high salinity, high CO2 content, and sulfate-reducing bacteria corrodes the cement by dissolution, chemical, and expansion actions. By improving the permeability of the cement and reducing the content of Ca(OH)2 in the cement, anticorrosion effects can be promoted. Addition of... 

In highly saline brines, which were collected from the Vassar Vertz Sand Unit, Pajme County, Oklahoma, diverse populations of anaerobic, heterotrophic bacteria were present. All strains grew in a mineral salts medium containing glucose, yeast extract, and casamino acids in the presence of NaCl concentrations of up to 20% by weight [177],... 

G. Ma. Laboratory study on polymer flooding in oil reservoir with high salinity. Oil Gas Recovery Technol, 3(2) I,1, 33,1996. 

Atchafalaya and Mississippi Rivers. Florida Bay waters, which overlie U-rich sediments, contain much higher ( Ra/ " Ra) activity ratios than other estuaries. The increased ( Ra/ " Ra) values observed at high salinities in the Mississippi/Atchafalaya systems indicate preferential decay of the shorter-lived ""Ra over Ra during estuarine mixing. 

It is not suitable for low-permeability and high-salinity areas, as well as areas with extreme pH levels. 

It is possible for complex metals ions that are adsorbed onto very small particles of clay to migrate as metal-clay particles. Laboratory experiments found that radioisotope-clay particles at a low salinity were retained in a sand core, but passed through it at a high salinity.44 Clay-metal particles would not be expected to travel long distances in deep-well reservoir rocks because the pores would be too small. 

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