Global chemical output

Fig. 1.3 Global chemicals output by region, 1990-2010 (nominal gross output, excluding drugs medicines and soap cleaning preparations).

Figure 2 Global Chemical Output by Sub-Sector (Product-Oriented)...

Figure 3 Global Chemical Output 2004(Categorized by Market-Segments)...

Fig. 17.1 Comparison between PEACE G-II airborne meteorological parameters and global chemical weather forecasting system output fields along the flight paths. Colors denote altitudes...

The global chemical industry today produces tens of thousands of substances. The substances can be mixed by the chemical industry and sold and used in this form, or they can be mixed by downstream customers of the chemical industry (e.g., retail stores that sell paint). It is important to note that most of the output from chemical companies is used by other chemical companies or other industries (e.g., metal, glass, electronics), and chemicals produced by the chemical industry are present in countless products used by consumers (e.g., automobiles, toys, paper, clothing) (OECD, 2001). 

According to the European Commission s White Vapcr on the strategy for a fiiture chemicals policy, the global production of chemicals had increased fitim Imillion tonnes in 1930, to 400 million tones by die time the White Paper was published in 2001 (EC, 2001 4). The chemical industry in the EU produces about one third of total international chemical output and as such is collectively the largest chemical industry in the world, with an estimate turnover of some 556 billion in 2003 (for the EU 25 counteies) (CEFIC 2004). 

In 2008 the global chemical industry was a 3.7 trillion enterprise. In the past, the United States and Western Europe were the top exporters of chemicals to developing countries, but now they lag behind Asia-Pacific countries, primarily because of production in China and India. Surpassing U.S. and European output, the Asia region experienced an increase of 9.1 percent in its share of world chemical sales (Figure 1-1) from 1997 (17.0 percent) to 2007 (30.4 percent), a stark contrast with the decUne in both Europe (from 32.2 percent to 29.5 percent) and the countries adhering to the North American Free Trade Agreement (from 28.0 percent to 22.2 percent). ... 

Intra-Regional Trade. Unfortunately, China s thirst for chemical inputs does not necessarily mean that China will become an attractive export destination for Europe. For commodity chemicals producers in particular, whose logistics costs such as freight and tariffs can often account for up to 30% of total costs [9], the global chemicals industry has a distinctly regional character. Even between the world s three main manufacturing regions (USA, Europe, and Japan) only limited trade flows take place relative to overall output. 

Many real problems do not satisfy these convexity assumptions. In chemical engineering applications, equality constraints often consist of input-output relations of process units that are often nonlinear. Convexity of the feasible region can only be guaranteed if these constraints are all linear. Also, it is often difficult to tell if an inequality constraint or objective function is convex or not. Hence it is often uncertain if a point satisfying the KTC is a local or global optimum, or even a saddle point. For problems with a few variables we can sometimes find all KTC solutions analytically and pick the one with the best objective function value. Otherwise, most numerical algorithms terminate when the KTC are satisfied to within some tolerance. The user usually specifies two separate tolerances a feasibility tolerance Sjr and an optimality tolerance s0. A point x is feasible to within if... 

Some of the NPP models are based on the color imagery and some are not. In the latter, phytoplankton growth is estimated from coupled global circulation and biogeo-chemical models in which water motion controls nutrient availability. The water motion is controlled by climatic factors, such as temperature gradients and wind stress. The latest effort to compare model outputs was conducted with 31 different models and foimd that global estimates for a test year (1998) differed by as much as a factor of 2 The mean results from this model intercalibration experiment are shown in Table 23.7. 

The atmosphere, ocean, and biosphere leave their record in sedimentary rocks. It is likely that this record reflects both secular and cyclic evolutionary processes. The cyclic processes involve chemical mass transfer of materials in and out of global reservoirs like the atmosphere, ocean, and sedimentary rocks. If inputs and outputs of these reservoirs are nearly balanced so that over long periods of geologic time the mass and composition of the reservoirs remain constant, a quasi-steady state is maintained. Hand-in-hand with this cyclicity go changes in Earth s surface environment reflecting secular evolution of the planet, an aging process. 

In chemical engineering, as well as in other scientific and technical domains, where one or more materials are physically or chemically transformed, a process is represented in its abstract form as in Fig. 1.1(a). The global process could be characterized by considering the inputs and outputs. As input variables (also called independent process variables , process command variables , process factors or simple factors ), we have deterministic and random components. From a physical viewpoint, these variables concern materials, energy and state parameters, and of these, the most commonly used are pressure and temperature. The deterministic process input variables, contain all the process variables that strongly influence the process exits and that can be measured and controlled so as to obtain a designed process output. 

This forecast system evolved from a protot3q)e run with lower resolution (T21) that started in November 2000. Then it switched to higher resolution (T42) with a spin-up time of 3 months for the global distribution of chemical species. Daily forecasts and archived output data have been available on a web page at the Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC) since 1 January 2002. 

This entropic approach to bonded fragments in a molecule has created a new impetus to a search for novel, information-distance measures of the chemical bond multiplicities [27,28]. The resulting entropic bond-orders reflect upon the molecular communication system involving the promolecular input probability scheme and the molecular output probability scheme, of finding electrons on specified AIM. Clearly, the promolecule probabilities of atomic assignments are modified in a molecule as a result of the communication noise created by the electron delocalization throughout the molecular system, via a network of the chemical bonds. Specific entropy differences have been found to reflect both the global and... 

Volatile flux estimates derived in the previous section, both for arcs individually as well as arc-related volcanism globally, make no distinction as to the source or provenance of the volatiles. However, in order to assess the chemical mass balance between output at arcs and input associated with the subducting slab, the total arc output flux must be resolved into its component structures. In this way, the fraction of the total output that is derived from the subducted slab can be quantified and compared with estimates of the input parameter. As we show in this section, helium has proven remarkably sensitive in discerning volatile provenance. We use CO2 and N2 to illustrate the case. 

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