Fundamental chemical process

To prevent or at least minimize such problems, we must better understand the environment at all levels, including the fundamental chemical processes that affect it. We have learned the lesson that when assessing the fate of new products in the environment, we should not underestimate the potential of these to appear in unexpected places. The recognition, avoidance, or solution of complex environmental problems requires the expertise of a variety of science and engineering disciplines. Only then will it be possible to produce realistic evaluations of how new compounds will be distributed and will act in the ecosystem. In addition to chemistry and biochemistry, fields such as solution thermodynamics and transport phenomena in which many chemical engineers work, as well as earth sciences and environmental engineering, have crucial contributions to make. 

Electron transfer (ET) reactions belong to the most fundamental chemical processes and play important roles in many systems. Both homogeneous and heterogeneous ET reactions have been studied extensively. ET at two immiscible liquid/liquid interfaces is of great interest as a model of direc-... 

The state of the art with respect to supramolecular extraction has been summarized in several recent reviews from different perspectives, including in terms of the underlying fundamental chemical processes involved as well as with respect to possible applications in research and industry [7-15],... 

A fundamental chemical process is surfactant flooding in which the key mechanism is to reduce interfacial tension (IFT) between oil and the displacing fluid. The mechanism, because of the reduced IFT, is associated with the increased capillary number, which is a dimensionless ratio of viscous-to-local capillary forces. Experimental data show that as the capillary number increases, the residual oil saturation decreases (Lake, 1989). Therefore, as IFT is reduced through the addition of surfactants, the ultimate oil recovery is increased. In alkaline flooding, the surfactant required to reduce IFT is generated in situ by the chemical reaction between injected alkali and naphthenic acids in the... 

Along with hydrogen transfers (in the form of protons, hydrogens, or hydrides), electron transfer is one of the most fundamental chemical processes in biological systems. Electron transfers are found in the respiratory chain, in photosynthesis, and in uncountable metabolic pathways. Enzymes such as the family of oxidoreductases have evolved to catalyze chemical reactions such as the functionalization of C-H bonds. Inner-sphere or outer-sphere (Long Range) electron... 

It is rare to be able to visit an old book on fundamental chemical processes and to be able to modify and amplify the conclusions with the insight from recent experimental and theoretical results. It was a privilege to follow this pursuit even though it was embarrassing at times when typographical errors, incorrect citations of fact, and fundamental mistakes in the previous version became obvious. Hopefully more errors were corrected than were introduced in the wealth of new information. 

Moreover, due to the controllable wettability by counteranion exchange [56, 57], SWNT-IL-Br, which was both hydrophobic and hydrophilic, could assemble at the water/oil interface in a controllable manner, i.e., from monolayer to multilayers [58]. Thus, it enabled a novel SWNT-sandwiched water/oil interface for the electron transfer, one of the most fundamental chemical processes... 

Electron transfer, a fundamental chemical process underlying all redox reactions, has been under experimental and theoretical study for many years [1-6]. Theoretical studies of such processes seek to understand the ways in which their rate depends on donor and acceptor properties, on the solvent, and on the electronic coupling between the states involved. The different roles played by these factors and the way they affect qualitative and quantitative aspects of the electron transfer process have been thoroughly discussed in the past half-century. This kind of processes, which dominate electron transitions in molecular systems, is to be contrasted with electron transport in the solid state, that is, in metals and semiconductors. Electrochemical reactions that involve both molecular and solid-state donor/acceptor systems, bridge the gap between these phenomena [6]. Here, electron transfer takes place between quasi-free electronic states on one side, and bound molecular electronic states on the other. 

Indeed, in the context of fundamental chemical processes in dilute environments, which are at the heart of this book (i.e. reaction processes in or supported by the gas phase), are combustion processes. As was pointed out in the introductory summary to these application chapters, combustion is all-present in our lives, and is encountered in internal combustion engines, in domestic and large-scale power generation by boilers and furnaces, in incineration of waste, in smelting and glass production, and so on. Not surprisingly, the analysis, monitoring and control of these combustion processes have featured prominently in the transfer of laser chemical methods from the laboratory to the real world. 

The CSB reported that Texas City managers had not lead safety by word and deed, as many safety pohcies and procedures were deficient at aU levels. Safety campaigns, goals, and employee rewards all targeted improving persormel safety metrics and worker behaviors, rather than on improving fundamental chemical process safety. 

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