Fuel generation

If possible comparisons are focused on energy systems, nuclear power safety is also estimated to be superior to all electricity generation methods except for natural gas (30). Figure 3 is a plot of that comparison in terms of estimated total deaths to workers and the pubHc and includes deaths associated with secondary processes in the entire fuel cycle. The poorer safety record of the alternatives to nuclear power can be attributed to fataUties in transportation, where comparatively enormous amounts of fossil fuel transport are involved. Continuous or daily refueling of fossil fuel plants is required as compared to refueling a nuclear plant from a few tmckloads only once over a period of one to two years. This disadvantage appHes to solar and wind as well because of the necessary assumption that their backup power in periods of no or Httie wind or sun is from fossil-fuel generation. Now death or serious injury has resulted from radiation exposure from commercial nuclear power plants in the United States (31). 

A secondary benefit is that efficiency gains in fossil fuel generation also reduce all types of harmful emissions, even carbon dioxide—the greenhouse gas suspected by many as a major culprit of climate change. A 45 percent efficient plant releases approximately 40 percent less COn per megawatt-hours of electricity produced than a 25 percent efficient plant that it might be replacing. 

In 1985, about 70% of the sulphur dioxide in the United States was emitted from fossil-fueled generating stations while in Canada, about 50% was... 

Riggs, C. O. Curium Fueled Generators for Lunar and Space Missions. 

An electrical fault causes the heating of wire insulation producing fuel gases that mix instantly with air. The wire is in a narrow shaft in which air enters at a uniform velocity of 0.5 m/s at 25 °C (and density 1.18 kg/m3). The cross-sectional area of the shaft is 4 cm2. The gaseous fuel generated is at 300 °C and its heat of combustion is 25 kJ/g. Assume steady state conditions and constant specific heat at 1.0 J/g K. 

A major advantage of plasma processing is that the heat input may be accomplished in an atmosphere of any desired composition and reactivity. In practice there are only a few variations of chemical strategies available for thermal processing i.e. pyrolysis, oxidation, reactions with hydrogen and water. They were already reported elsewhere [5]. The most cost effective and friendly to the environment are the approaches of plasma employing for zero-waste fuel generation or for zero-waste incineration. 

Gas fuel generation from wastes is very attractive and environmentally friendly activity. Several computer analysis of the solid waste conversion into gas fuel was done in the PTEP Group [6]. 

As an example we present here some computation results for the plasma treatment of the hospital patients room waste with advantage of plastics, cellulose and non-organic metal and glass parts. To check the efficiency of gas fuel generation from this waste we have simulated the limited oxidation within temperature range 1000 - 2500 °C. We have assumed that in 1kg of dry waste are (by weight) 60% of plastics, 15% of silicon glass, and 10% of... 

Figure 1. Flowchart of plasma zero-waste fuel generation process...

In Figure 1 the flow chart of gas fuel generation together with vitrification of all solid residues is presented. The system is self-supplied in... 

Additionally, the incomplete oxidation of fuel generates weak organic acid anions. Furthermore, there is loss of base in the faeces each day which, in effect, leaves the body with an excess of protons to be excreted. In total, about 70 milliequivalents (mEq) of acid require excretion each day. Note mEq is used to quantify the acid load because this takes account of the valency of the ion 1 mmol of sulfate, S04, for example, is 2 mEq of negative charge, requiring 2 mEq of protons for neutralization, but for monovalent ions, such as protons or bicarbonate, 1 mEq= 1 mmol. ... 

The presence of halogen additives substantially increases the tendency of all fuels to soot under diffusion flame conditions [69], The presence of H atoms increases the soot pyrolysis rate because the abstraction reaction of H + RH is much faster than R + RH, where R is a hydrocarbon radical. Halogenated compounds added to fuels generate halogen atoms (X) at modest temperatures. The important point is that X + RH abstraction is faster than H + RH, so that the halogen functions as a homogeneous catalyst through the system... 

Taking into account the requirements listed in Section A, it would be desirable if the reactants A and B be compounds which are very cheap and readily available. Naturally, the constituents of the atmosphere and liquid water fill this requirement admirably. Table 1 lists most of the endergonic fuel generation reactions which involve N2, CO2 and H2O as reactants including the reaction of photosynthesis. It is significant that the potential difference AE , which is the potential stored per electron transferred, is between 1.02 V and 1.48 V for all of the reactions in Table 1. Thus, the energy requirements for the photochemistry are about the same for each of these reactions. We immediately see that the reaction of photosynthesis (reaction 9 of Table 1) is in troiable for one photosystem because is known to be 700 nm. The imp-... 

Table I. Some Endergonic Fuel Generation Reactions Starting with N, CO and H O...

This field is in its infancy - clearly, much more basic and mission-oriented research will be necessary to establish if workable and economic fuel-generation systems and electrical generation systems can be developed. The challenge now is to chemists, physicists and biologists to develope systems that at least work in the laboratory. Only then can meaningful economic analyses be made. Hopefully this article will help to provide some guidelines and objectives for the research that must be done. 

However, the approaches discussed here may well have special advantages for fuel generation in remote unattended locations, e.g. in Canada s North. 

Industrial processes, such as mUling and mining, construction work, and the burning of wood or fossil fuel, generate particulates that can be directly toxic or can serve as vectors for the transfer of bound material, such as sulfuric acid, metals, and hydrocarbons, into the lungs. Natural products such as pollen, anthrax spores, and animal dander can elicit toxic reactions on inhalation or skin contact. The inhalation of asbestos, silica, or coal dust can cause pneumoconiosis, which may develop into serious lung disease. The size of the particle, ventilatory rate, and depth of breathing will determine the extent of pulmonary deposition. 

Cyclic artificial photosynthetic systems (Fig. 11) include an oxidation process complementary to the reduction reaction. For light-driven reductive syntheses of valuable chemicals or for the removal of environmental pollutants the concept of utilizing a sacrificial electron donor can be adapted. Yet, for the application of artificial photosynthetic systems as fuel generation devices, several basic criteria must be met by the complementary oxidation process ... 

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