Fuel second generation

The first MCFC was demonstrated by Broers in 1950 [336], and the first MCFC at high pressure was built by Reiser and Schroll [337] in 1980. As shown in Figure 32, at present the MCFC it is the most efficient fuel cell, and this will be discussed in the following. The MCFC, operating at a temperature between 600 and 650°C, is generally considered a second-generation fuel cell [316,338,339], It can be used with coal gas and even more so with natural gas as a fuel. 

Molten carbonate fuel cells have been termed as the second-generation fuel cell as they have lagged... 

Although the production of biofuels is of considerable economic relevance, it is also characterized by heated political, ecological, and social debates. Recombinant technologies and second-generation fuels are expected to contribute to a reduction in the dependence on fossil resources and to significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions ([73], section 12.2). A calculation of emissions yielded 94 for gasoline, 77 for currently available bioethanol, and 11 for cellulosic-based ethanol... 

Figure 5.61 Second generation fuel processor/fuel cell system as designed by Aoki et al. [447]. It was composed of a microchannel reformer, a water- as shift reactor not shown), a hydrogen permeator and a water-cooled PEM fuel cell.

Figure 9.49 Second generation fuel processor developed by Nuvera [620],...

The start-up time demand was demonstrated to be kept below 4 min, which was impressive, for the second generation fuel processor, as shown in Figure 9.51 [620]. The start-up procedure was described. Gasoline was fed to the autothermal reformer at 7 kWth for 1.5 min. Then the gasoline flow was increased to 30kWth- The carbon... 

Phosphoric acid fuel cells have successfully been commercialized. Second generation fuel cells include solid oxide fuel cells and molten carbonate fuel cells. Research is ongoing in areas such as fuel options and new ceramic materials. Different manufacturing techniques are also being sought to help reduce capital costs. Proton exchange membrane fuel cells are still in the development and testing phase. 

Fogassy, G., Thegarid, N., Toussaint, G., vanVeen, A.C., Schuurman, Y., Mirodatos, C., 2010. Biomass derived feedstock co-processing with vacuum gas oil for second-generation fuel production in FCC units. Applied Catalysis B Environmental 96, 476—485. 

These catalysts contained promoters to minimise SO2 oxidation. Second-generation systems are based on a combined oxidation catalyst and particulate trap to remove HC and CO, and to alleviate particulate emissions on a continuous basis. The next phase will be the development of advanced catalysts for NO removal under oxidising conditions. Low or 2ero sulfur diesel fuel will be an advantage in overall system development. 

In second-generation PFBC, a topping combustor is used to raise the turbine rotor inlet temperature to state-of-the-art levels. Pulverized coal is fed to a partial-gasifier unit that operates about 870° to 925°C (1,600° to 1,700°F) to produce a low heating value fuel gas and combustible char. The char is burned in the PFBC. The fuel gas, after filtration, is piped back to the gas turbine, along with the PFBC exhaust. 

As electric fields and potential of molecules can be generated upon distributed p, the second order energies schemes of the SIBFA approach can be directly fueled by the density fitted coefficients. To conclude, an important asset of the GEM approach is the possibility of generating a general framework to perform Periodic Boundary Conditions (PBC) simulations. Indeed, such process can be used for second generation APMM such as SIBFA since PBC methodology has been shown to be a key issue in polarizable molecular dynamics with the efficient PBC implementation [60] of the multipole based AMOEBA force field [61]. 

Second-generation biofuel technologies make use of a much wider range of biomass feedstock (e.g., forest residues, biomass waste, wood, woodchips, grasses and short rotation crops, etc.) for the production of ethanol biofuels based on the fermentation of lignocellulosic material, while other routes include thermo-chemical processes such as biomass gasification followed by a transformation from gas to liquid (e.g., synthesis) to obtain synthetic fuels similar to diesel. The conversion processes for these routes have been available for decades, but none of them have yet reached a high scale commercial level. 

The same holds true for hydrogen however, biomass yields more kilometres when used via hydrogen in fuel-cell cars than liquid biofuels in ICE cars (see Fig. 7.5). Moreover, as hydrogen is produced via gasification, it is equivalent to second-generation biofuels, as it can use feedstock that does not interfere with the food chain. 

The first biodiesel initiatives were reported in 1981 in South Africa and in 1982 in Austria, Germany and New Zealand. Since then, the production of this alternative fuel has seen enormous developments, particularly in Europe, where it reached 5.7 millions tons in 2007. It is expected to increase further to fulfill the recent decision of the European Parliament to substitute 10% of transport fuels with biofuels by 2020. According to assessments of the European Community, to reach this target, the production of bioethanol, biodiesel and second-generation biofuels should reach 36 Mtep (tep = tonnes equivalents petrol) in 2020. 

Canada has a long history of hydrogen and fuel cell demonstrations. In 1993, the world s first fuel cell bus was displayed and in 1996, a second generation bus was demonstrated. With the success of these first fuel cell buses, a bus fleet demonstration was launched in 1997 which integrated numerous HFC technologies and illustrated that fuel cells and ancillary components could function as a whole system. Highlights include ... 

---