Fossil fuels reference plants

During the past twenty five years acid rain, formally referred to as acid deposition, has been the focus of much political debate and scholarly research. Acid deposition occurs when important precursor pollutants, such as sulfur dioxide (SOj) and nitrogen oxides (NOx), chemically mix with water vapor and oxidants in the atmosphere and fall back to earth in wet or dry form. Wet deposition comes in the form of dew, fog, snow or rain, while dry deposition occurs as either gasses or dry particulates. Research has shown that acid deposition adversely affects freshwater lakes and streams, coastal habitats, agricultural production, forests, soils, human health and building materials. Fossil-fuel power plants, refineries, and paper and pulp mills are the major sources of SOj emissions, while automobiles and other vehicles are the primary emitters of NO. ... 

Fossil fuel power plants are generating stations that rely on the combustion of fossil fuels to produce electricity. Only three fossil fuels—coal, petroleum, and natural gas— are used for this purpose. The term power plant does not refer only to fecilities that generate electricity but rather to any fecility whose function is to produce usable power, whether electrical, mechanical, hydrauUc, pneumatic, or another... 

Nonprocess Refers to industries that do not comprise a part of the CPI as their primary function, but which use comparable or equivalent complex equipment systems to perform their function, such as nuclear power plants, fossil fuel plants, and offshore oil rigs. 

Alicyclic hydrocarbons are saturated carbon chains that form ring structures. Naturally occurring alicyclic hydrocarbons are common (Chap. 1). For example, alicyclic hydrocarbons are a major component of crude oil, comprising 20-67 vol.%. Other examples of complex, naturally occurring alicyclic hydrocarbons include camphor (a plant terpene) and cyclohexyl fatty acids (components of microbial lipids). Anthropogenic sources of alicyclic hydrocarbons to the environment include fossil-fuel processing and oil spills, as well as the use of such agrochemicals as the pyrethrin insecticides (Chap. 1, and references therein). 

Title IV of the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 calls for a 10 million ton reduction in annual emissions of sulfur dioxide (S02) in the United Stales by the year 2010, which represents an approximately 40 percent reduction in anthropogenic emissions from 1980 levels, Implementation of Title IV is referred to as the Acid Rain Program the primary motivation for this section of the Clean Air Act Amendments is to reduce acid precipitation and dry deposition. To achieve these reductions, the law requires a two-phase tightening of the restrictions placed on fossil-fuel-lired power plants. 

Solid fuels refer to any fuels, such as coals, wastes, biomass, etc., that are in a solid state when they are burned in a high-temperature furnace. Coals are the most abundant fossil fuel on Earth, and are the most commonly used solid fuels for power generation, in the metallurgical industry, for gasification, and for heat supply. The wastes sometimes are burned in incinerators, as discussed in Chapter 8, and the generated heat is recovered to produce steam and electricity. Biomass mainly refers to plant materials, which are rarely used as fuels in industry. In this section, we will... 

The raw energy to the utility sector is reported in reference (A-l) as shown in Table A-l. The average heat rates reported yield first law efficiencies of 31 percent and 31.6 percent for nuclear and fossil-fueled plants respectively. The efficiency of hydrogeneration is estimated as 80 percent for the water turbine and 99 percent for the electric generator for an overall value of 79 percent. Hydropower and nuclear energy (The evaluation of the availability of nuclear fuels has not been completely resolved at this time this author feels that nuclear energy is substantially available and for purposes here will assume it to be entirely available.) are both entirely available so the second law efficiency is the same as the efficiency for these type plants. Adjustment of the efficiency of fossil-fueled plants by the availability-energy ratios of the fuels yields an njj of 31.6 percent. 

The primary source of CO2 is the burning of fossil fuels - specifically gas, oil, and coal - so stabilization of atmospheric CO2 concentration will clearly require substantial reductions in CO2 emissions from these sources. For example, one commonly discussed scenario to stabilize at 500 ppm by the mid-twenty-first century suggests that about 640 Gt CO2 (c. 175 GtC) would need to be avoided over 50 years, with further emission reductions beyond 50 years. As references, a 1000 MW pulverized coal plant produces 6-8MtC02 c. 2MtC) per year, while an oil-fired single-cycle plant produces about two-thirds this amount and a natural gas combined cycle plant produces about half this amount. Thus the above scenario would require that the atmospheric emissions from the equivalent of 2000-4000 large power plants be avoided by approximately the year 2050. 

The results of these investigations showed that the implementation of a Project for the construction and operation of a small-scale nuclear heat and power plant on the basis of a floating power unit with KLT-40C reactors (hereinafter referred to as the Project) allows -in the short run and with lower costs - to ensure safe and secure power supply in remote and isolated areas with extreme natural conditions and costly fossil fuel transportation. 

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