Fossil based feedstocks

Global petrochemical production of platform chemicals derived from fossil-based feedstocks (oil, coal, gas) is estimated to be aroxmd 330 million tons. The initial output is dominated by building blocks and converted into a staggering number of different fine and specialty chemicals with specific functions (Jong et al., 2012). The US Department of Energy listed out chemicals such as 3-Hydroxy-propionic (3-HP) acid and xylitol, to name just two, which are the potential building blocks for the future (Jong et al., 2012). 

Alternative feedstocks for petrochemicals have been the subject of much research and study over the past several decades, but have not yet become economically attractive. Chemical producers are expected to continue to use fossil fuels for energy and feedstock needs for the next 75 years. The most promising sources which have received the most attention include coal, tar sands, oil shale, and biomass. Near-term advances ia coal-gasification technology offer the greatest potential to replace oil- and gas-based feedstocks ia selected appHcations (10) (see Feedstocks, coal chemicals). 

Most of the plastics and synthetic polymers that are used worldwide are produced from petrochemicals. Replacing petroleum-based feedstocks with materials derived from renewable resources is an attractive prospect for manufacturers of polymers and plastics, since the production of such polymers does not depend on the limited supply of fossil fuels [16]. Furthermore, synthetic materials are very persistent in the environment long after their intended use, and as a result their total volume in landfills is giving rise to serious waste management problems. In 1992,20% of the volume and 8% of the weight of landfills in the US were plastic materials, while the annual disposal of plastics both in the US and EC has risen to over 10 million tons [17]. Because of the biodegradability of PHAs, they would be mostly composted and as such would be very valuable in reducing the amount of plastic waste. 

The selected biocatalyst is any of the already described alternatives based on R. rhodochrous bacteria ATCC No. 53968. Its concentration or proportion to the fossil fuel feedstock was neither reported nor claimed only a slight comment is made on the proportion between the crude oil and the biocatalytic aqueous solution, which states that it will not exceed one half the total incubation volumes. In addition, an additional amount of water, enough for desalting, is simultaneously added with the biocatalytic solution. The process is carried out by feeding the crude oil and water into a CSTR reaction vessel and stirred until an emulsion is formed. The mixture is incubated under stirring at temperature and pressure conditions, for a period of time adequate for both to occur, desalting and desulfurization. 

Approximately 89 million metric t of organic chemicals and lubricants, the majority of which are fossil based, are produced annually in the United States. The development of new industrial bioproducts, for production in standalone facilities or biorefineries, has the potential to reduce our dependence on imported oil and improve energy security. Advances in biotechnology are enabling the optimization of feedstock composition and agronomic characteristics and the development of new and improved fermentation organisms for conversion of biomass to new end products or intermediates. This article reviews recent biotechnology efforts to develop new industrial bioproducts and improve renewable feedstocks and key market opportunities. 

Industrialbiobased products have enormous potential in the chemical and material industries. The diversity of biomass feedstocks (sugars, oils, protein, lignocellulosics), combined with the numerous biochemical and thermochemical conversion technologies, can provide a wealth of products that can be used in many applications. Targeted markets include the polymer, lubricant, solvent, adhesive, herbicide, and pharmaceutical markets. Industrial bioproducts have already penetrated some of these markets, but improved technologies promise new products that can compete with fossil-based products in both cost and performance. 

For organic chemicals, transmaterialisation must mean a shift from fossil (mainly petroleum) feedstocks (which have a cycle time of > 107 years) to plant-based feedstocks (with cycle times of < 103 years). This immediately raises several fundamentally important questions Can we produce and use enough plants to satisfy the carbon needs of chemical and related manufacturing, while not compromising other (essentially food and feed) needs Do we have the technologies necessary to carry out the conversions (biomass to chemicals) and in a way that does not completely compromise the environmental and transmaterialisation characteristics of the new process ... 

The greenhouse-gas-neutral claim is the result of the combination of renewable-resource-based feedstock, along with the purchase of renewable energy certificates (RECs) backed by lifecycle assessment data. These RECs will serve as an offset to cover all of the emissions from the energy used for the production of NatureWorks PLA. The company will purchase certificates for projected 2006 production at its 140,000 tonne capacity manufacturing plant and 182,000 tonne capacity lactic acid plant in Blair, Neb., USA, as well as at its corporate offices in Minnetonka, Minn., USA. The purchase of renewable energy will allow NatureWorks to decrease its fossil fuel footprint by 68%. 

The sky-rocketing crude oil prices in recent years and the continuous exploitation of fossil fuels demand that we make serious efforts toward sustainable biofuel and bioenergy production. Renewable energy derived from plant-based feedstocks, organic residues, and biowastes is expected to reduce our dependency on fossil fuels, reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and enhance the rural economy (Schmer et al., 2008). In the United States, liquid biofuels such as ethanol and biodiesel are primarily derived... 

The environmental accumulation of plastic waste in the last decades is simply due to the fact that the plastic commodities, as obtainable from the unsubstitutable polymeric materials based on the fossil fuel feedstock. These are consisting of full-carbon backbone macromolecules, which are characterized by degradation... 

An approach aimed at providing a viable solution to the issue of plastic accumulation in the environment has been focusing on the chimeric bioplastics as friendly substitutes of the commodity plastic items based on fossil fuel feedstock. In spite of the remarkable efforts spent in the design and production of plastics from renewable resources (Fig. 14.5), correctly identifiable as bio-based plastics, as anticipated their global production is, to be generous, extremely limited (around 0.5 %) of the worldwide plastic production based on fossil fuel feedstock. 

It is worthwhile mentioning that according to the statistic data issued by the IBAW Industrial Association, the production and consumption of bio-based plastics was 50 K Tons in year 2004, and two years later in spite of the rosy perspectives, only a production of 150 K Tons was recorded [11], and nowadays after a decade, it has reached a production level of one order of magnitude higher but maintaining, however, the same proportional gap with respect to the fossil fuel feedstock-based plastics [12] (Fig. 14.1). 

Using plants as feedstock instead of petroleum or natural gas can potenhaUy reduce the amount of carbon dioxide emitted to the atmosphere. Globally, about 62 Gt of carbon is taken-up by plants annually via the photosynthesis process. Producing chemicals and industrial products form biomass directly reduces the associated carbon released during the produchon of fossil-based products. 

At present succinic acid is a specialty chemical with an annual production volume of about 30 000 tons worldwide. Fossil-based succinic acid is most commonly prepared via hydrogenation of maleic anhydride (by oxidation of n-butane or benzene) [73]. In the field of bio-based chemicals and building blocks succinic acid is considered to be one of the most important platform chemicals [1, 74, 75], and as a result of the introduction of biosuccinic acid the production volume is expected to double or triple within years. Several fermentation processes have been described to produce bio-based succinic acid. Common feedstocks for these processes include glucose, starch and xylose [76]. The commercial potential for bio-succinic acid is illustrated by the numerous initiatives by companies that are working towards, or already... 

Apart from energy consumption the chemical industry also uses fossil fuels for feedstocks and other materials. In 1993 5.9 mtoe were used as oil based feedstock for chemical plants and of this 3.1 million tonnes were... 

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