For Review

Unless Otherwise noted, all art on this page is Cengage Learning 2014. 

Review questions Answers to the Review Questions can be found on the Student website (accessible from www.cengagebrain.com.1. 

Explain the concept of counting by weighing using marbles as your example. 

Atomic masses are relative masses. What does this mean  

The atomic mass of boron (B) is given in the periodic table as 10.81, yet no single atom of boron has a mass of 10.81 u. Explain. 

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The principal use of Auger spectroscopy is in the determination of surface composition, although peak positions are secondarily sensitive to the valence state of the atom. See Refs. 2, 82, and 83 for reviews. 

Of particular interest has been the study of the polymer configurations at the solid-liquid interface. Beginning with lattice theories, early models of polymer adsorption captured most of the features of adsorption such as the loop, train, and tail structures and the influence of the surface interaction parameter (see Refs. 57, 58, 62 for reviews of older theories). These lattice models have been expanded on in recent years using modem computational methods [63,64] and have allowed the calculation of equilibrium partitioning between a poly-... 

Surfactants have also been of interest for their ability to support reactions in normally inhospitable environments. Reactions such as hydrolysis, aminolysis, solvolysis, and, in inorganic chemistry, of aquation of complex ions, may be retarded, accelerated, or differently sensitive to catalysts relative to the behavior in ordinary solutions (see Refs. 205 and 206 for reviews). The acid-base chemistry in micellar solutions has been investigated by Drummond and co-workers [207]. A useful model has been the pseudophase model [206-209] in which reactants are either in solution or solubilized in micelles and partition between the two as though two distinct phases were involved. In inverse micelles in nonpolar media, water is concentrated in the micellar core and reactions in the micelle may be greatly accelerated [206, 210]. The confining environment of a solubilized reactant may lead to stereochemical consequences as in photodimerization reactions in micelles [211] or vesicles [212] or in the generation of radical pairs [213]. 

An emulsion may be defined as a mixture of particles of one liquid with some second liquid. The two common types of emulsions are oil-in-water (O/W) and water-in-oil (W/0), where the term oil is used to denote the water-insoluble fiuid. These two types are illustrated in Fig. XIV-1, where it is clear that the majority or outer phase is continuous, whereas the minority or inner phase is not. These two emulsion types are distinguished by their ability to disperse oil or water-soluble dyes, their dilution with oil or water, and their conductivity (O/W emulsions have much higher conductivity than do W/0 ones see Ref. 1 for reviews). 

Car and Parrinello [202] proposed a teclmique for efficiently solving the Scluodinger equation which has had an enonuous impact on materials simulation (for reviews, see [203. 204. 205. 206]). The technique is an ab initio one, i.e., free of empirical parameters, and is based on the use of a quantum mechanical orthononual... 

We are grateful to Dorina Kosztin for reviewing a draft of the manuscript. 

The coordination of bidentate ligands is generally more efficient than expected on the basis of the binding affinity of monodentate analogues. This is referred to as the chelate effect. For reviews, see (a) Schwarzenbach, G. Helv. Chim. Acta, 1952, 35, 2344 (b) reference 75. 

There are numerous articles and references on computational research studies. If none exist for the task at hand, the researcher may have to guess which method to use based on its assumptions. It is then prudent to perform a short study to verify the method s accuracy before applying it to an unknown. When an expert predicts an error or best method without the benefit of prior related research, he or she should have a fair amount of knowledge about available options A savvy researcher must know the merits and drawbacks of various methods and software packages in order to make an informed choice. The bibliography at the end of this chapter lists sources for reviewing accuracy data. Appendix A of this book provides short reviews of many software packages. 

The conversion of acetylenes into acetyl ides, M-C=C-R (M = Li, Na, K, MgBr), by means of alkyllithium or Grignard reagents in organic solvents or by alkali metal amides in liquid ammonia is well documented (for practical examples see ref. 1, for review articles consult inter alia refs. 2-5). 

For reviews on furan chemistry see References 1, 4—7. The monograph by Dunlop and Peters (1), pubHshed in 1953 remains as the most comprehensive review of furan chemistry available. Unfortunately, it has never been revised, has been out of print for many years, and is not readily available. An excellent, review by Dean (7) covers advances in furan chemistry up through about 1982. 

For dmgs approved originally between 1938 and 1962, the FDA has utilized the Abbreviated New Dmg AppHcation (ANDA) for review of generic products that are pharmaceutical equivalents of the initially approved products. In this way, costiy dupHcation of animal and human experimentation is avoided. The new manufacturer has to show only that its manufacturing methodology, specifications, quaUty control, and labeling are acceptable. In some cases, the FDA does require proof of bioequivalence. 

Nitriles. Nitriles can be prepared by a number of methods, including ( /) the reaction of alkyl haHdes with alkaH metal cyanides, (2) addition of hydrogen cyanide to a carbon—carbon, carbon—oxygen, or carbon—nitrogen multiple bond, (2) reaction of hydrogen cyanide with a carboxyHc acid over a dehydration catalyst, and (4) ammoxidation of hydrocarbons containing an activated methyl group. For reviews on the preparation of nitriles see references 14 and 15. 

In order to be approved, an NDA must include data which demonstrate that the dmg is both safe and effective. Each NDA is assigned to a division within ODER for consideration and adnunistrative control, and then assigned to the appropriate therapeutic group within the division for review. The primary team of reviewers typically consists of a physician, a pharmacologist or toxicologist, and a chemist. 

K. Kawaguchi, M. Hkotani, and T. Eumya, in Y. P. S. Bajaj, ed.. Biotechnology in Agriculture andForestry, Vol. 21, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants IV, Springer-Vedag, Berlin, 1993, for review of in vitro culture and production of cardenohdes. 

S. Fatal, Z. Rappoport, and C. J. M.. Stiding, eds.. The Chemistry of Sulphones andSuphoxides,]ohss Wdey Sons, Inc., New York, 1988, Chapt. 7, pp. 262—266, for reviews of the acidities of various sulfonic acids. 

Ultimately, guidelines such as those above will be taken seriously only if production management carefully configures the alarms. The consequences of excessive and redundant alarms will be felt primarily by those responsible for produc tion operations. Therefore, production management must make adequate resources available for reviewing and analyzing the proposed alarm configurations. 

Continuous-Pliase Coefficients There have been a large number of measurements of kc for sohd particles and gas bubbles suspended in agitated hquids [for review, see Miller, Jnd. Fng. Chem., 56(10), 18 (1964)]. A typical correlation of these data is that of Calder-bankand Moo-Young [Chem. Fng. Sci., 16, 39 (1961)] ... 

Ceramic bond formation and grain growth by diffusion are the two prominent reactions for bonding at the high temperature (1100 to 1370°C, or 2000 to 2500°F, for iron ore) employed. The minimum temperature required for sintering may be measured by modern dilatometry techniques, as well as by differential scanning calorimetry. See Compo et al. [Powder Tech., 51(1), 87 (1987) Paiticle Characterization, 1, 171 (1984)] for reviews. 

Material and energy balances of common types of reactors are summarized in several tables of Sec. 7. For review purposes some material balances are restated here. For the /ith stage of a CSTR batteiy,... 

Plant-performance analysts should be involved in reviewing the entire sampling procedure. The procedures for review are ... 

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