Expense total annual

Between 1979 and 1991, the amounts of herbicide apphed in the United States have remained constant, but the expenditures on herbicides have increased 54%. Agricultural costs accounted for ah. of this increase and more, since herbicide user expenditures in the government/commercial and home sectors combined dropped 3 to 4% during that period. Increased weed control costs related to crop protection have also contributed to the 37% increase, since 1988, in total annual user expenditures for pesticides in general, ie, herbicides, fungicides, and insecticides. In the United States, agricultural uses (ca 1993) account for more than 67% of total pesticide user expenses and 75% of the quantity used annually. Herbicides are now the lea ding type of pesticides in terms of both user expenditures and volumes used (1). 

By 1960, the elements of modem membrane science had been developed, but membranes were used in only a few laboratory and smaU, specialized industrial appHcations. No significant membrane industry existed, and total annual sales of membranes for aU appHcations probably did not exceed 10 million in 1990 doUars. Membranes suffered from four problems that prohibited their widespread use as a separation process they were too unreHable, too slow, too unselective, and too expensive. Partial solutions to each of these problems have been developed since the 1960s, and in the 1990s membrane-based separation processes are commonplace. 

The revenue from the annual sales of product As, minus the total annual cost or expense required to produce and sell the product Af , excluding any annual provision for plant depreciation, is the annual cash income Ac( ... 

The total annual expense A g required to produce and sell a product can be written as the sum of the annual general expense Age. nd the annual manufacturing cost or expense A. g ... 

FIG. 9-1 Relationship between annual costs, annual profits, and cash flows for a project. A d — annual depreciation allowance Acf — annual net cash flow after tax Ac/ = annual cash income Age = annual general expense Aqp = annual gross profit A/r = annual tax A e = annual manufacturing cost Avc/ = annual net cash income Avvp = annual net profit after taxes A/ p = annual net profit As = annual sales Apc = annual total cost (DCFRR) = discoiinted-cash-flow rate of return (NPV) = net present value. 

Example 2 Net Present Value for Different Depreciation Methods The following data descrihe a project. Revenue from annual sales and the total annual expense over a 10-year period are given in the first three columns of Table 9-5. The fixed-capital investment Cpc is 1,000,000. Plant items have a zero salvage value. Working capital C vc is 90,000, and cost of land C/ is 10,000. There are no tax allowances other than depreciation i.e., is zero. The fractional tax rate t is 0.50. 

As = base revenue from annual sales before tax. Ate = base total annual expense before tax. (NPV) = base net present value after tax. 

The estimated (DCFRR) and the estimated (NPV) are both functions of the estimated cumulative revenue from annual sales X As, the estimated cumulative total annual cost or expense X Ate, and the estimated fixed capital cost Cfc of the plant. The revenue from annual sales for each year is in turn the product of the sales price and sales volume. Initially it is desirable to select those values from the distribution cui ves of X As, X Ate, and Cfc which enable the maximum and minimum (DCFRR) and (NPV) to be calculated. 

Kroodsma (6) studied the use of a filter to separate the urine and the faeces. The main target is to transport the mixture of faeces and some straw to arable farmers and spread the urine on own farmland. But a side effect of direct separation is a reduction of the emission of odours. This separation system is relative expensive, especially in modem pighouses with transverse channels. For a 500-pig unit the extra investment is at least Dfl. 70,- per pig place. The total annual costs are Dfl. 5,- per pig place. In a pighouse with channels in length this system is cheaper and this difference increases when the house is longer. 

In 1975, the first commercial entity was formed to provide multicenter, outpatient clinical trial contracting services in the United States. This was the beginning of the modern Contract Research Organization (CRO) industry. It is now composed of thousands of domesfic and infernafional firms involved in medical producf evaluations in humans. The total annual expense globally for clinical trials and related functions necessary for commercial, governmenf, and academic therapeutic product development is estimated at US 50 billion, of which about US 15 billion is outsourced to the contract services market. 

Using data from the SITE demonstration, the total electrical demand for operation of the system was estimated to be about 30 horsepower, primarily to operate the vacuum blower. Assuming continuous operation, electrical costs of 0.06/kWh would result in yearly expenses of about 11,750. It is assumed that the cost of fuel for larger, diesel-operated compressors would be comparable. A small additional cost could be included for lighting the system over night (for security purposes). Including on-site telephone and facsimile service, the total annual utility costs would be about 17,000 per year (D10589F, p. 19). 

Figure 5.15 illustrates the effect of changing the reactor inlet temperature on the economics. All the costs are in terms of annual costs ( per year) using a payback period of 3 years for capital investment. The only energy cost is compressor work. There is a minimum in the total annual cost (TAC) curve. For the expensive catalyst, the optimum... 

For both the expensive and inexpensive catalysts, the cooled reactor system has the lowest total annual cost among all the alternative systems. This occurs for two reasons ... 

Finally, it is interesting to compare the alternatives as capital and operation costs (Figure 3.19). The most expensive columns are those crossing the boundary, as well as for separating the binary chloroform/toluene. The alternative with two columns is the cheapest It also has the lowest operation costs. The first alternative is the most expensive in operation. On the basis of total annual cost the best alternative is by far the one with only two columns. The alternative with a sloppy split is ranked in second place, because of its cheaper operation. 

The cost of hydrogen from electrolysis is dominated by two factors (1) the cost of electricity and (2) capital-cost recovery for the system. A third cost factor—operation and maintenance expenses (O M)—adds perhaps 3 to 5 percent to total annual costs. The electrochemical efficiency of the unit, coupled with the price of electricity, determine the variable cost. The total capital cost of the electrolyzer unit, including compression, storage, and dispensing equipment, is the basis of fixed-cost recovery. 

Solution. The break-even point (Fig. 6-3) occurs when the total annual product cost equals the total annual sales. The total annual product cost is the sum of the fixed costs (including fixed charges, overhead, and general expenses) and the direct production costs for n units per year. The total annual sales is the product of the number of units and the selling price per unit. Thus... 

Project net present value Return on investment Reactor productivity per unit volume Plant availability (time on stream) Process yield of main product Project expense Cost of production Total annualized cost Plant inventory (for safety reasons) Formation of waste products... 

Total product cost or total annual expenses... 

A familiar obstacle, his father, stood in the way. University studies were expensive a year at university cost nearly as much as the total annual earnings of the best-paid mine workers of the time. 

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