Endurance sports

Costill, D.L. and Miller, J.M. (1980) Nutrition for endurance sport. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 1 2-14. 

The literature does reach a consensus on one point— creatine does not enhance aerobic activity, which is required in endurance sports such as cross-country running, basketball, or long-distance cycling. However, to the extent that these sports may require short bursts of activity, such as sprints at the end of a cycling or running race, creatine may offer athletes some performance gains. 

For endurance sports to enhance the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood (bicycling, marathon running) erythropoietin, blood doping (the athlete has blood withdrawn and stored, then transfused once the deficit had been made up naturally, so raising the plasma haemoglobin above normal). 

Molina L, Mont L, Marrugat J, et al. Long-term endurance sport practice increases the incidence of lone atrial fibrillation in men a follow-up study. Europace 2008 10 618-23. 

In active and endurance sports, the performance of a sportswear is synonymous with its comfort characteristics. In active wear for outdoor use, the clothing should be capable of protecting the wearer from external elements such as wind, sun, rain and snow. At the same time, it should be capable of maintaining the heat balance between the excess heat produced by the wearer due to increased metabolic rate on the one hand, and the capacity of the clothing to dissipate body heat and perspiration on the other. Moisture management is the process of transporting moisture in the form of perspiration away from the skin to the outer surface of a fabric or garment where it can evaporate. 

By endurance sporting activities such as jogging and marathon running, opioid peptides are released in the brain these dampen sensitivity to pain and can trigger a sense of euphoria. [68]... 

Schumacher, Y.O., Schmid, A., Dinkelmann, S., et aL (2001) Artificial oxygen carriers-the new doping threat in endurance sport International Journal of Sports Medicine, 22,566-571. 

Wilcox, J. A., Caffeine and endurance performance, Sports Science Exchange, 3, 1990. 

Perkins, R. and Williams, M. H., Effects of caffeine upon maximal muscular endurance of females, Medical Science and Sports, 7, 221, 1975. 

Butts, N. and Crowell, O., Effects of caffeine ingestion on cardiorespiratory endurance in men and women, Research Quarterly in Exercise and Sports, 56, 301, 1985. 

Sasaki, H., Takaoka, I, and Ishiko, T., Effects of sucrose or caffeine ingestion on running performance and biochemical responses to endurance running, International Journal of Sports Medicine, 8, 203, 1987. 

Tarnopolsky, M. A., Atkinson, S. A., Macdougall, J. D., Sale, D. G., and Sutton, J. R., Physiological responses to caffeine during endurance running in habitual caffeine users, Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 21, 418, 1989. 

It took a few years for Althea to adjust to the world-class level of play. (7°) She won her first major tournament in 1956 and would dominate the sport for the next five years, winning six doubles titles and a total of eleven Grand Slam events including the U.S. Nationals and Wimbledon twice. Yet even at the height of her career as an international tennis champ, Althea was forced to endure discrimination. She was often refused hotels (7 V rooms and reservations at restaurants simply because of her skin color. 

EPO is used in blood doping to generate more red blood cells for carrying oxygen. It is particularly favored by endurance athletes to enhance their performance. Human growth hormone (hGH, see description in Section 4.5.2) is used to build up muscle and bone strength. Both EPO and hGH are banned in sports. 

Answer The use and abuse of anabolic steroids by athletes and body builders of either sex to increase strength and muscle mass is widespread. Surveys indicate that in the United States 6% of high school athletes, 20% of college athletes, and more than 50% of professional athletes in certain sports use or abuse anabolic steroids at some time. Use of these compounds does result in increased muscle mass, strength, and endurance. However, much of this beneht is now thought to be due as much to en-... 

Despite these issues, creatine remains well-known as a nutritional, performance-enhancing supplement used by athletes to improve high-intensity muscle endurance and performance. Bodybuilders and weightlifters supplement with creatine to bulk up muscles, and athletes involved in team sports train with creatine to increase their energy for sprints and other short and intense muscular tasks. Statistics show that the use of creatine by adolescent and adult athletes is growing. Yet research is still largely inconclusive on exactly how... 

Reilly T, Walsh TJ. Physiological, psychological and performance measures during an endurance record for 5-a-side soccer play. Bri J Sports Med 1981 15 122-128. 

Lehmann M, Foster C, Keul J. Overtraining in endurance athletes a brief review. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1993 25 854-862. 

Graham TE. Caffeine and exercise metabolism, endurance and performance. Sports Med 2001 31 785-807. 

Driver HS, Rogers GG, Mitchell D, Borrow SJ, Allen M, Luus HG, Shapiro CM. Prolonged endurance exercise and sleep disruption. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1994 26 903-907. 

C28. Child, R. B., Wilkinson, D. M., and Fallowfield, J. L., Resting serum antioxidant status is positively correlated with peak oxygen uptake in endurance trained runners. J. Sports Med. Phys. Fitness 39, 282-284 (1999). 

The same distinctions hold in humans. Sprinters and marathon runners have different proportions of muscle fibers, and therefore different metabolisms. Sprinters have relatively more fast white fibers, and can run very rapidly, but not for long distances. Marathon runners, on the other hand, have more slow red fibers and can carry out aerobic metabolism for very long periods of time, although they can t go as fast. Well-trained, world-class runners may have as much as 90 percent of their leg muscle of one type or the other, depending on their sport. Some sports, such as basketball and soccer, involve both aerobic endurance and anaerobic sprinting these athletes tend to have both types of muscle fiber. Untrained individuals have about 50 percent of each type. The relative contributions of training and heredity to each type of metabolism remain unknown, although both play some part. 

---