Emulsification applications

NFDM, which retains casein micelles similar to those in fresh milk, is produced by pasteurization of sklmmllk, vacuum concentration and spray drying under processing conditions that result in either "low heat" or "high heat" product. Low heat NFDM is required for most applications that depend upon a highly soluble protein, as the case for most emulsification applications, since it is manufactured under mild temperature conditions to minimize whey protein denaturation and complexation with casein micelles. 

Lactalbumin is an insoluble whey protein product produced by heating whey to high temperatures ( > 90 C) to denature and render the proteins insoluble when adjusted to isoelectric conditions by the addition of acid. These proteins offer little functionality in emulsification applications. 

Co-preclpltate is an insoluble milk protein product that is produced by heating skinimllk to high temperatures ( > 90 C) to denature the whey proteins and complex them with the casein micelles. The heated system is subsequently adjusted to isoelectric point conditions of pH 4.5-5 to precipitate the complexed whey protein-casein micelles, centrifuged or filtered to recover the precipitate, washed and dryed. The resulting product, which is virtually insoluble, exhibits only minor functionality in most typical emulsification applications. 

Enzyme-hydrolyzed lecithin for bakery, and emulsification applications. 

Canned food emulsion. Another emulsification application for lecithins is in canned pet foods. Lecithin can help maintain homogeneity within the ingredient mixture during pumping to the cans, can reduce fat capping and crystallizing within the can, and can keep gravies and sauces consistent and smooth, without separation while stored in the cans. Lecithin is used at 0.25% to 0.75% of the canned pet food formula to achieve these effects (315). 

Water-soluble surfactant widely used for detergency, wetting, and emulsification applicable where low foaming is particularly important. 

The ether carboxylic acids are weakly dissociated [49], exhibiting nonionic behavior at low pH and anionic behavior at high pH. Due to this dual nonionic and anionic character a good emulsification effect can be achieved [66]. For many applications a high carboxymethylation of 80-90% is preferred [64] to obtain the wanted properties. 

Emulsifiers are used in many technical applications. Emulsions of the oil-in-water and the water-in-oil type are produced on a large scale in the cosmetic industry. Other fields of employment are polymerization of monomers in emulsions and emulsification of oily and aqueous solutions in lubricants and cutting oils. In enhanced oil recovery dispersing of crude oil to emulsions or even microemulsions is the decisive step. 

Different methods are used in microemulsion formation a low-energy emulsification method by dilution of an oil surfactant mixture with water and dilution of a water-surfactant mixture with oil and mixing all the components together in the final composition. These methods involve the spontaneous formation of microemulsions and the order of ingredient addition may determine the formation of the microemulsion. Such applications have been performed with lutein and lutein esters. ... 

Table 5.1.1 lists patents covering emulsification as a technique to obtain carotenoid formulas. Table 5.1.2 summarizes commercial formulations contaiifing natural colorants and food applications. 

As an example, a compact high-throughput turbulent flow reactor/mixer/heat exchanger was used for various applications, including polymer and rubber manufacture [50]. Further applications refer to emulsification and intensified heat exchange. 

The HLB values required for the emulsification of commonly used oils and waxes in pharmaceutical applications are given in Table 7 [143]. To obtain a... 

Table 7 Required HLB Values for the Emulsification of Oils and Waxes Commonly Used in Pharmaceutical Applications... 

Manufacturing validation data, which should aim to identify the critical process steps, especially for nonstandard manufacturing processes such as for new dosage forms, should be discussed in the development pharmaceutics section of the application. Validation data may be accepted based on closely related products. In-process control tests and acceptance limits should be included for any aspect where conformity with the finished product tests cannot otherwise be guaranteed (e.g., mixing, granulation, emulsification and nonpharmacopeial sterilization processes). 

Large-scale ultrasonic irradiation is extant technology. Liquid processing rates of 200 liters/minute are routinely accessible from a variety of modular, in-line designs with acoustic power of several kW per unit (83). The industrial uses of these units include (1) degassing of liquids, (2) dispersion of solids into liquids, (3) emulsification of immiscible liquids, and (4) large-scale cell disruption (74). While these units are of limited use for most laboratory research, they are of potential importance in eventual industrial application of sonochemical reactions. 

The chemical and biological effects of ultrasound were first reported by Loomis more than 50 years ago (4). Within fifteen years of the Loomis papers, widespread industrial applications of ultrasound included welding, soldering, dispersion, emulsification, disinfection, refining, cleaning, extraction, flotation of minerals and the degassing of liquids (5),(6). The use of ultrasound within the chemical community, however, was sporadic. With the recent advent of inexpensive and reliable sources of ultrasound, there has been a resurgence of interest in the chemical applications of ultrasound. 

In terms of the process, very little has been achieved. The mass transfer limitations still exist although emulsification has solved the problem partially, but not without creating another problem downstream in separation of the product from the rest of the stream and the issue still needs further work. The IP portfolio contains very few real process concepts. The patented material refers to a BDS process several times, but the process referred to, is no more than a simple description of the pH, temperature, etc., and the particular use of a given biocatalyst in an application. Some protected subject matter concerns the integration of a bioprocess into the flow sheet of the refinery, but again those are no more than theoretical scheme proposed for implementation, with no actual evidence with real feedstocks. 

Soy Protein Concentrates. Both non-functional (low or no solubility) and functional (good solubility, emulsification capacity, and dispersibility) soy protein concentrates (70% protein, dry basis) are commercially available for use in meat products (2-4, 6, j), 15) Normally, a highly functional product with no harsh or bitter flavors is desirable. When used to replace lean meat, non-hydrated concentrate can be used at levels up to 6-7% in finished nonspecific emulsion meats Higher replacement levels or formulas with specific cost/nutrition requirements may use soy protein concentrate with a judicious amount of textured soy protein (6). Excellent yields, cost savings, texture, flavor and nutrient profiles are possible. However, most soy protein concentrates lack sufficient solubility or sufficiently low viscosities to be used in brines for absorption or injection into whole muscle tissue. When legal standards for protein content exist (13), more concentrate must be used to achieve legal minimums. Brine viscosities increase and uniform distribution of brine components throughout the specific whole muscle piece is restricted. Finished product appearance and flavor are easily compromised. Thus, use of soy protein concentrates in whole muscle applications is limited. 

Membrane emulsification allows a precise control of the droplet size and monodispersity but the scale up of this process is difficult. MicroChannel emulsification is a promising technique but the low production rates restrict its use to highly monodisperse systems intended for high-technology applications. 

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