Ecological field survey

Surveys of Environmental Impacts. Field survey methods focus on assessing changes in the condition of entire populations and ecological community functions (e.g., pest species proliferation, species diversity, litter decomposition rate, changes in the rate of primary production). These methods under certain circumstances may relate effects to specific pollutant sources, but most frequently they are used to indicate that a problem does exist. A current application of survey methods being developed emphasizes identification of indigenous species to serve as surrogates for a portion of the ecosystem. 

A similar application of ecotoxicological data is hazard assessment. Unlike risk assessment, hazard assessment is nonprobabilistic and relies upon indices rather than probabilities. One such index is the hazard quotient , which is the ratio of the expected environmental concentration (based upon field surveys or simulation models) divided by a benchmark concentration. The benchmark concentration is derived from some measure of toxicity such as the LC50 or no-observed-effect level. Hazard assessments are often conducted at different levels or tiers of increasing complexity and specificity if a chemical is identified as potentially hazardous by tier (the least complex and specific test), a decision is made to take action or, if more information is needed, to proceed to tier 2 tests. After tier 2 tests, a decision is made whether to take action or proceed to tier 3 tests, and so on. This process is repeated until it is decided that there is enough information to determine whether or not there is significant ecological hazard. If there is, then regulatory action is taken. 

The remainder of this section details the potential application of multivariate methods in the selection of endpoints and in the evaluation of exposure and effects of stressors in ecosystems. Particular reference is made to the application of these methods to the current framework for ecological risk assessment. Examples of the use of multivariate methods in detecting effects and in selecting important measurement variables are covered using both field surveys and multispecies toxicity tests. 

In the field of fresh water plankton chemical ecology microcystins from cyanobacteria have stimulated much research and discussion. A critical reflection on the ecological function of these non-ribosomal peptides has recently been published (Babica et al. 2006). Surveys of methods for the quantification of these peptides (McElhiney and Lawton 2005 Msagati et al. 2006) and on the effects on fish (Malbrouck and Kestemont 2006) can be found as well. 

Wills, J. (2000) Muddied Waters a Survey of Offshore Oil Field Drilling Wastes and Disposal Techniques to Reduce The ecological Impacts of Sea Dumping Sakhalin Environment Watch, Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk, Russia, pp. 139. 

The determination of the concentrations of elements in plant tissues is very important in a number of fields. These include agriculture, ecology, botanical exploration for minerals, and environmental surveys for pollutants. 

Establishing a reference condition by using field data typically involves a survey of the composition of the biological community at a variety of sites with minimal human activity but also represents the variety of habitat types or landforms that exists with the area being managed. A multivariate description, similar to that of the approach of Kersting discussed earlier, can be constructed for each habitat or landform type. This multivariate description is the reference condition. In this manner, the variability of the ecological system that is characteristic of each type of site can be represented. 

The affected area is surveyed by ground surveys, aerial reconnaissance, or aerial videos. Usually all three methods are combined. The team completes observations and measurements on a segment, produces a sketch map of the site, and fills in forms or checklists of observations on the site. During the field work, the SCAT team documents the distribution and character of stranded oil, the amount and location of subsurface oil, shoreline characteristics, and the character of the substrate. Ecological and human resources in the segment are documented. 

This book would not have been possible without the agreement of the authors to finish their contributions in a relatively short time from the first inquiry to write a manuscript to the receipt of the final version, only one year passed. We would like to express our sincere thanks to the authors for their kind cooperation, stimulating input and valuable contributions. No attempt to provide a uniform terminology has been made by the editors and authors (e.g. for the terms bioindication and biomonitoring), and therefore it varies from chapter to chapter due to the many different views that coexist at present. The book rather gives a survey of the state of the art of this expanding field based on the authors work. Both contradictory and complementary aspects of ecological trace element research are pointed out to the attentive reader. 

From an ecological standpoint, an analytical as well as a synoptic survey of the large field of plant water relationships is given in the present volume. The importance of water for plant life is treated from the molecular aspects of the cytoplasm in cells and tissues, and from the whole plant organism on the one hand to ecosystems and vegetation zones on the other. The authors, all specialists in their field, describe the level of our present knowledge, point out the scientific problems that have recently arisen, and show directions of future research. 

In the preceding, I have tried to make a sort of integrative survey by using more or less obvious ecological knowledge. New developments in this field would probably require, as I said above, newer patterns in the biochemical arts. In these, the so-called there-must-be approach could be eventually a profitable strategy. 

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