Dopant donor

The band gap Eg of semiconductors is typically of the order of 0.5 - 2 eV (e.g., 1.12 eV for Si, and 0.67 eV for Ge at room temperature), and consequently the conductivity of intrinsic semiconductors is low. It can be greatly enhanced by doping, which is the controlled introduction of suitable impurities. There are two types of dopants Donors have localized electronic states with energies immediately below the conduction band, and can donate their electrons to the conduction band in... 

Extrinsic semiconductors ate those in which the carrier concentration, either holes or electrons, are controlled by intentionally added impurities called dopants. The dopants are termed shallow impurities because their energy levels lie within the band gap close to one or other of the bands. Because of thermal excitation, -type dopants (donors) are able to donate electrons to the conduction band and p-type dopants (acceptors) can accept electrons from the valence band, the result of which is equivalent to the introduction of holes in the valence band. Band gap widening/narrowingmay occur if the doping changes the band dispersion. At low temperamres, a special type of electrical transport known as impurity conduction proceeds. This topic is discussed in Section 7.3. 

Material Acceptor dopant Donor dopant Composition of doped PPP Dopant Species C7dc (S cm ) References... 

If the polymer photoconduaor is doped with the high elearon affinity dopant (acceptor) or with low ionization potential dopant (donor), then one can usually observe a new absorption band in the visible range of light. This band results from the formation of CT complexes between the photoconduaor and the dopant molecules. These complexes become the centers of photogeneration. The thermalization distance determined from the conventional Onsager theory is of the order of 2-3 nm, so it is 1 order of magnitude bigger than the distance between donor and acceptor in the excited complex. 

The usual acceptor and donor dopants for Al Ga As compounds are elements from groups II, IV and VI of the periodic table. Group II elements are acceptors and group VI elements are donors. Depending on the growth conditions. Si and Ge can be either donors or acceptor, i.e. amphoteric. This is of special interest in LEDs. 

The impurity atoms used to form the p—n junction form well-defined energy levels within the band gap. These levels are shallow in the sense that the donor levels He close to the conduction band (Fig. lb) and the acceptor levels are close to the valence band (Fig. Ic). The thermal energy at room temperature is large enough for most of the dopant atoms contributing to the impurity levels to become ionized. Thus, in the -type region, some electrons in the valence band have sufficient thermal energy to be excited into the acceptor level and leave mobile holes in the valence band. Similar excitation occurs for electrons from the donor to conduction bands of the n-ty e material. The electrons in the conduction band of the n-ty e semiconductor and the holes in the valence band of the -type semiconductor are called majority carriers. Likewise, holes in the -type, and electrons in the -type semiconductor are called minority carriers. 

Fig. 1. (a) Silicon (valence = 4) crystal lattice shown in two dimensions with no broken bonds, T = 0 K (b) siUcon crystal lattice with a broken bond (c) sibcon crystal lattice with a siUcon atom displaced by a donor dopant, ie, -doped (valence = 5) and (d) siUcon crystal lattice with a siUcon atom displaced... 

Atoms of elements that are characterized by a valence greater than four, eg, phosphoms or arsenic (valence = 5), are one type of dopant. These high valence dopants contribute free electrons to the crystal and are cabed donor dopants. If one donor atom is incorporated in the lattice, four of the five valence electrons of donor dopants are covalentiy bonded, but the fifth electron is very weakly bound and can be detached by only ca 0.03 eV of energy. Once it is detached, it is available as a free electron, ie, a carrier of electric current. A sibcon crystal with added donor dopants has excess electron carriers and is cabed n-ty e (negative) sibcon (Fig. Ic). 

The carrier concentrations in doped or extrinsic semiconductors to which donor or acceptor atoms have been added can be deterrnined by considering the chemical kinetics or mass action of reactions between electrons and donor ions or between holes and acceptor ions. The condition for electrical neutraHty is given by equation 6. When the predominant dopants are donors, the semiconductor is... 

Fig. 11. PTC resistivity-temperature characteristics for donor dopants of (- D -) 0.15 mol ( ) 0.15 mol Nd " and (O) 0.24 mol Y " in BaTiO. Dopant concentrations are optimum amounts for each type. AH were prepared as nitrates in the same manner (32).

Certain perovskites with Pb on the A site are particularly important and show pronounced piezoelectric characteristics (PbTiO, PZT, PLZT). Different responses are found in BaTiO and PZT to the addition of donor dopants such as La ". In PZT, lead monoxide [1317-36-8] PbO, lost by volatilization during sintering, can be replaced in the crystal by La202, where the excess positive charge of the La " is balanced by lead vacancies, leading to... 

In the high temperature regime for covalent crystals where the hardness drops rapidly, its values are affected by impurities (dopants). Both hardening and softening occur depending on whether the dopant is is a donor, or an accepter... 

Mg2+ ion. 49 has been used to deposit MgO by atomic layer epitaxy,222 and is commonly employed as a />-type dopant for semiconductors, particularly GaAs,223 GaN,224,225 and AlGaN.226 In GaN, Mg doping induces a blue 2.8 eV photoluminescence band arising from donor-acceptor (D-A) pair recombination.227 It is likely that isolated Mg... 

When both donors and acceptors are present, compensation results, whereby the electrons supplied by the donor are given to the acceptor. Thus, the free carrier concentration can be considerably reduced below that expected from introducing a known donor or acceptor if the opposite type of dopant is unintentional. For example, semi-insulating (SI) InP (used as a substrate for epitaxial growth) can be made by incorporating low levels of Fe3+ as a deep acceptor (reduced to Fe2+) to compensate for unintentional n-type doping in the sample [19]. 

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