Cross-section investigation

Cross-sections of the embedded layers were also investigated by SEM. The substrates were cut using a diamond cutting blade about 2-3 mm from the end and mounted into a mixture of cold mounting epoxy resin and an epoxy system (1 1) for metallographic preparation. Cross-sections of the samples were polished with silicon carbide (SiC) grinding papers (180, 500, 1200,2400,4000) and with 1.0 and 0.3 pm of alpha alumina suspension. 

The correlation between the parameters of electrolysis (current density, duration of electrolysis, temperature) and the morphology of the deposits on the stainless steel substrates was investigated. The analysis of composition, fine bulk and interface details of aluminium coatings electroplated from ionic liquids was performed by SEM, EDAX and FIB. 

Two ionic liquids provided by BASF were used for the deposition of aluminium coatings, A102 and A103. Both ionic liquids are acidic compositions composed of EMImCl (40%) and AICI3 (60%) as EMImCl- 

1 Electrodeposition of A1 from ionic liquid A102 on stainless steel substrate 

The deposition experiments were performed with stainless steel substrates (SS) at two different current densities, 20 and 40 mA/cm. The time of electrolysis was kept to 0.5,1 and 2 h. The temperature in all experiments varied between 85 and 95 °C. 

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In the Massachusetts Women s Health Study, a population-based cross-sectional investigation of women, Hernandiz-Avila and colleagues16 also found an inverse linear association with caffeine intake (estimated from... 

Morawska L, Thomas S, Hofmann W, Ristovski Z, Jamriskaa M, Rettenmoser T, Kagerer S (2004) Exploratory cross-sectional investigations on ambient submicrometer particles in Salzburg, Austria. Atmos Environ 38 3529-3533... 

For demanding cross-sectional investigations on samples which cannot be cut or which contain fibre types which break randomly when cut, grinding and pohshing machines as used in materials analysis (for example metals, ceramics) u c required. 

Graph showing the vapour beam direction required to obtain suitable preshadowed surface replicas for cross sectional investigation of film microstructures in [50]. 

One more application area is composite materials where one wants to investigate the 3D structure and/or reaction to external influences. Fig.3a shows a shadow image of a block of composite material. It consists of an epoxy matrix with glass fibers. The reconstructed cross-sections, shown in Fig.3b, clearly show the fiber displacement inside the matrix. The sample can be loaded in situ to investigate the reaction of matrix and fibers to external strain. Also absorption and transmission by liquids can be visualized directly in three-dimensions. This method has been applied to the study of oil absorption in plastic granules and water collection inside artificial plant grounds. 

The data from Table 2 show that the algorithm developed in allows sizing of different cracks with complex cross-sections and unknown shapes for orientation angles not exceeding 45°. It is seen that the width 2a and the parameter c (or the surface density of charge m=4 r // e at the crack walls) are determined with 100% accuracy for all of the Case Symbols studied. The errors in the computation of the depths dj and di are less than 4% while the errors in the computation of d, dj, d, and d are less than 20% independent of the shape of the investigated crack and its orientation angle O <45°. 

The production of characteristic X rays is determined by the cross sections discussed above, but the observed X-ray spectra include both these characteristic peaks and a continuous background radiation. A detailed investigation of the origin of... 

Resonant Excitation Excitation by a laser, which is resonant with an electronic transition of the material under investigation, can increase the Raman cross-section by approximately 10. The transitions and thus the resonance wavelengths are specific for the substances. Resonance excitation thus leads to selectivity that can be useful for suppressing bulk bands, but can also complicate the detection of mixtures of substance with different absorption spectra. 

In a cross-sectional study, exposure and effect are studied simultaneously. This approach contains an inherent problem because exposure must precede the effect. However, it can he used to investigate acute effects and also mild chronic effects (which do not force people to leave their jobs) if exposure has remained rather stable for a long time. When the prevalence of the effects studied are compared with the prevalence in other worker groups (controls or references) which correspond otherwise with the study group but are not exposed to the agent investigated, indicative evidence of possible causality may be obtained. For example, cross-sectional studies have been applied successfully to reveal the associations between mild neurotoxic effects and exposure to organic solvents. ... 

A similar acoustic technique was applied by Pickles and Bittleston (1983) to investigate blast produced by an elongated, or cigar-shaped, cloud. The cloud was modeled as an ellipsoid with an aspect ratio of 10. The explosion was simulated by a continuous distribution of volume sources along the main axis with a strength proportional to the local cross-sectional area of the ellipsoid. The blast produced by such a vapor cloud explosion was shown to be highly directional along the main axis. 

These stress-strain diagrams may be applied, for example, to the investigation of a rod of which has its total volume is glass fiber and half plastic. If the glass fibers are laid parallel to the axis of the rod, at any cross-section, half the total cross-sectional area is glass and half plastic. If the rod is stretched 0.5%, reference to the stress-strain diagrams... 

One may expect that with increasing temperature the thermal expansion in the crystalline regions will lead to an enlargement of the chain cross-section in the crystalline phase which in turn will induce a decrease in the cohesion energy of the crystals thus causing a gradually lower resistance to plastic deformation. In order to minimize the effect of the surface layer, the influence of temperature on microhardness has been investigated in PE crystallized at 260 °C under a pressure of 5 Kbar 28). The decrease of MH with temperature for the above chain extended PE material is depicted in Fig. 11. The hardness decrease follows an exponential law... 

The major problem in method (a) is that in ion-molecule interchange, considerable momentum in the direction of travel of the incident ion is imparted to both final products. Hence, in a perpendicular type apparatus only transfer of low weight particles can be observed at all and only at very low velocities of the incident ions (1, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 19, 20, 23, 27). Cross-sections cannot be measured. The value of these investigations is that some ion-molecule reactions—e.g., proton transfer and hydride ion transfer—can be identified. The energetics and the competition between charge exchange and ion-molecule reactions can be discussed, and by using partially deuterated compounds, one can obtain a detailed picture of the reaction. 

Recently, the CH4+-CH4 reaction has been investigated (9) by measuring the CH4 + disappearance cross-section rather than CH5 + formation cross-sections. Results of this work are shown in Figure 9. Two mechanisms cause a loss of CH4 + ions from the total ion yield in the methane mass spectrum. There are loss processes in the ion source which generate new ions, CH5 +, and possibly other products. Other loss... 

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