Start costs

Engineering expenses Legal fees and license or permit costs Start-up and shake-down costs Contingency allowances... 

Comparatively low-cost starting materials and easy synthesis make it possible to manufacture these pigments economically. 

Despite the described disadvantages, but due to the high yield, economical production methods, and low-cost starting materials, the phthalic anhydride/urea method is presently the most significant industrial route to Copper Phthalocyanine Blue manufacture. 

The only practical way to move synthesis gas around is by pipeline, and even in two-party transactions, the pipelines are usually no longer than a mile or two. Beyond that, the pipeline capital cost starts to affect the economics of the applications. 

Because of the important potential applications of silicon nitride, the use of low-cost starting materials, such as elemental silicon and liquid ammonia or amines, may be more effective than the existing chloride method. In earlier work, litis process was found to form silicon di-imide (Si(NH)2), but required purification steps to remove chloride. 

Some carbohydrates are inexpensive and provide a great variety of functional and stereochemical features. Faithful to our philosophy that low-cost starting materials should be utilized, we shall discuss some reactions of glucose and syntheses with glucose as starting material. Structures of glucose derivatives and other commercially available carbohydrates are given below. 

The wide availability of various polysaccharides provides an important source of some of the monosaccharides. Such monosaccharides are now used in organic reactions as low-cost starting materials in the synthesis of a range of simpler optically pure compounds (e.g. Expt 5.77). These synthetic strategies have been made possible from earlier work on the development of numerous selective protection methods, on the application of new selective reagents for functional group modification within the monosaccharide molecule, and on the realisation of the role of conformation in the interpretation of a reaction course. The preparative examples in this section are illustrative of these developments. 

Cost and biodegradabiUty have also been major concerns, and new families of ILs derived from renewable feedstock or from low-cost starting materials have beat described. These Bio-ILs are entirely composed of biomaterials [183]. An example to be cited is the development of the deep eutectic mixtures liquid systems based on choline chloride [ 184] for which the qualification of ILs is stiU the subject of controversies. Choline can be used as alternative cation in combination with suitable anion to generate ILs. The biodegradable properties of these ILs have been reported [185]. 

Just before the oil embargo, however, replacement costs started to climb sharply. From 1971 to mid-1973, prices rose to their real 1950 level. For the first time in our history, the replacement cost of energy sources jumped above the average price paid by consumers. The postembargo oil price increases have accelerated this trend as Table I shows, the replacement cost for the mix of energy consumed by industry in mid-1977 exceeded the price of supplied energy by about 37%. The cost disparity in September 1977 was the most for natural gas (59%)—it would be even higher if Alaskan gas, liquified natural gas, or synthetic fuels were used as replacement fuels—and the least (0%) for coal. 

The yield of conversion of the 15N aspartic acid (the most costly starting material in this reaction) was high (> 90%). 

In one sense, process chemists concerned with cost reduction and synthesis choice have some flexibility. The overall cost of a manufacturing synthesis can accommodate long plant occupancies if starting materials are inexpensive. Costly starting materials, however, demand short residence times. The overall cost depends on both expenses, so one may be high if the other is low. 

According to Scheme 13.8, the most relevant advantage of gold catalysis consists in the low cost starting material, ethylene glycol, and the clean technology that avoids the use of chlorinated reagents and carbon monoxide. 

Second period constraint 100 < 105 is not satisfied. We don t need to check remaining constraints since the problem became infeasible. We caimot satisfy the demands of the first two periods with our available resources for the first two periods. However, all of the constraints were satisfied, then the next step would be to find an initial feasible solution. For example, as we increase the capacities for each period to 60, the problem becomes feasible. We can shift back demands to find initial solution. Fifth period net requirements is more than our capacity, so five units are shifted to third period. Then our new production/ordering schedule becomes D = (45, 60, 50, 60, 60, 44). Now we can improve the initial solution. There may be different approaches to improve the solution, we adopt one mentioned by Nahmias [3]. The idea is to shift production orders back as long as the holding costs is less than the set-up costs starting from the last period. In our example, we don t have enough capacity in previous periods to shift 44 back. 

One of the earliest innovative approaches to product development with direct implication for design for the environment was product-aimed rationalisation based on the value analysis philosophy [5], This systematic method for achieving the necessary functions of a product at the lowest possible cost starts, in contrast to traditional cost-reduction methods, by asking such fundamental questions as ... 

Controlling glove costs starts with a quality product that lasts long enough for product usage to be controlled. 

AT T provides telecommunication equipment and long-distance services to the telemarketing industry. To help its telemarketing customers for their site location decisions, AT T developed a decision support system (DSS) (Spencer et al., 1990). When the "800-service" was introduced in 1967, the cost of 800 -service determined their locations, since the labor cost was minimal. The Midwest, particularly Omaha (Nebraska), became the "800-cap-tial" of the world. However, in the 1980s, labor cost started becoming very significant. AT T provided the decision support system (DSS) as a value-added service to its customers. 

Recently, the greatest apphcation of LCP was revealed to be that for molded electronic parts appropriate for SMT, which demands as high heat resistance as that of type II LCP. From the trend of the demand for LCPs, the research and development of type II LCP with improved moldabihty (flowability) have been actively pursued by many companies by suppressing the heat resistance of type I LCP. On the other hand, type III LCP has a structure derived from HBA/PET, and it has been insufficient for SMT applications due to its low DTUL, although it has the advantage of low-cost starting materials. A chronological table of the development of the three types of LCP is shown in Table 11.3. 

In the end, all these factors result in very high part cost and restrict the volume to relatively low numbers per day. This has driven continuing development to try and reduce the manufacturing costs, starting in the segments of lower performance applications where the extreme cost of autoclaves could not be warranted. The development made in these low end performance sectors has fundamentally changed the entire composites manufacturing market. 

To obtain sensitive luminescent chemosensors, many requirements must be met. In particular the material should be (photo)chemically stable, compatible with the milieu of use, should present photophysical properties that do not depend on the environment or on a specific analyte for marketing in general it should be obtained with an easy synthesis and low cost starting materials, and for their use in the medical field they should be biocompatible, non toxic and environmental friendly as far as their disposal is concerned. 

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