Contamination countermeasures

Abstract Many hazardous substances of today had been looked at as valuable chemicals some decades ago. At present, management especially in the case of scarce, non-renewable resources is of growing importance. The experiences collected with the management of contaminants might be helpful also for valuable resources. This is demonstrated using two well-documented examples, Cd and PCBs. Pt serves as a counterexample to prove if the DPSIR method can be applied to contaminants and resources without fundamental changes. Some of the countermeasures introduced to control environmental contaminants may also be applied to save non-renewable resources. 

Daburon, F., Y. Archimbaud, J. Cousi, G. Fayart, D. Hoffschir, I. Chevallereau, and H. Le Creff. 1991. Radiocaesium transfer to ewes fed contaminated hay after the Chernobyl accident effect of vermiculite and AFCF (ammonium ferricyanoferrate) as countermeasures. Jour. Environ. Radioactivity 14 73-84. 

Nisbet, A. F., 1993, Effect of soil - based countermeasures on solid - liquid equilibria in agriculture soils contaminated with radiocaesium and radiostrontium. Sci. Total Environ. 137 99-118. 

Numerous sources of ionizing radiation can lead to human exposure natural sources, nuclear explosions, nuclear power generation, use of radiation in medical, industrial and research purposes and radiation-emitting consumer products. Before assessing the radiation dose to the population, one requires a precise knowledge of the activity of a number of radionuclides. The basis for the assessment of the dose to the population from a release of radioactivity to the environment, the estimation of the potential clinical health effects due to the dose received and, ultimately, the implementation of countermeasures to protect the population is the measurement of radioactive contamination in the environment after the release. The types of radiation one should consider include ... 

At the request of the Chief of Naval Operations, the Naval Studies Board of the National Research Council has conducted an assessment of naval forces defense capabilities against chemical and biological warfare threats. At issue for the Department of the Navy are these questions—to what extent are capabilities being developed that will enable the naval forces to quickly sense and analyze the presence of chemical and biological agents, withstand or avoid exposure to such agents (through effective protection or countermeasures), and deal with contamination under a broad spectrum of operational conditions and over what time frame will these capabilities be realized The tasks of this assessment were as follows ... 

The most effective method for preventing skin exposure to chemical warfare agents is the correct and timely use of personal protective equipment (PPE), such as gloves, suits and boots. However, there are a variety of scenarios under which skin contamination may occur and so it is important to have effective medical countermeasures available to mitigate skin absorption. 

Meyers, P. A., 1987. Chronic contamination of lakes by petroleum hydrocarbons The sedimentary record. In Vandermeulen, J. H. S. E. Hrudy (eds.) Oil in Freshwater Chemistry, Biology, Countermeasure Technology. Pergamon Press, New York 149-160. 

To avoid the damage of human health and contamination of particular elements of the environment it is necessary to apply the risk management process which is significant and still rmderrated tool in the Czech Republic. No matter the characteristic and sector classification of the researched risk in the risk evaluation process it is possible to identify common elementary steps like the risk resources identification, to evaluate, to semi-quantify or quantify all risks, to propose and then to implement adequate preventive countermeasures for the critical risks. Within the waste disposal process in this phase this method must be applied, i.e. in the phase of a landfill planning, operations and closing. Just only in this was it is possible to reach an efficient risk control and reduction. 

Threat category V is for areas that are far enough away from category I or II facilities not to require implementation of urgent proteetive actions such as evacuation, relocation, and sheltering but where there is a potential for food and foodstuff contamination that calls for the implementation of agrieultural countermeasures and foodstuff monitoring and control. 

Evacuation is the most common public protective action for emergencies involving possible release of hazardous materials. Evacuations are common and people do not panic and travel during an evacuation is safer than normal travel. Evacuation is the most effective protective action, provided that it can be implemented before or soon after a release begins. Evacuation after a release is an effective countermeasure against irradiation from contaminated ground, which can be an important source of exposure. Evacuation can be effective even if carried out in a plume for a long-duration release and for areas close to the release. Normally, evacuation should not be considered for more than seven days. 

---