Cocoa equivalents

Substitutes and Equivalents. In the past 25 years, many fats have been developed to replace part or all of the added cocoa butter ia chocolate-flavored products. These fats fall into two basic categories commonly known as cocoa butter substitutes and cocoa butter equivalents. Neither can be used ia the United States ia standardized chocolate products, but they are used ia small amounts, usually up to 5% of the total weight of the product, ia some European countries. 

Cocoa butter substitutes of all types enjoy widespread use ia the United States chiefly as ingredients ia chocolate-flavored products. Cocoa butter equivalents are not widely used because of their higher price and limited supply. 

Cocoa butter substitutes do not chemically resemble cocoa butter and are compatible with cocoa butter only within specified limits. Cocoa butter equivalents are chemically similar to cocoa butter and can replace cocoa butter ia any proportion without deleterious physical effects (15,16). 

Cocoa butter substitutes and equivalents differ greatly with respect to their method of manufacture, source of fats, and functionaHty they are produced by several physical and chemical processes (17,18). Cocoa butter substitutes are produced from lauric acid fats such as coconut, palm, and palm kernel oils by fractionation and hydrogenation from domestic fats such as soy, com, and cotton seed oils by selective hydrogenation or from palm kernel stearines by fractionation. Cocoa butter equivalents can be produced from palm kernel oil and other specialty fats such as shea and ilHpe by fractional crystallization from glycerol and selected fatty acids by direct chemical synthesis or from edible beef tallow by acetone crystallization. 

In the eady 1990s, the most frequently used cocoa butter equivalent in the United States was derived from palm kernel oil but a synthesized product was expected to be available in the near future. 

The endo-action of the K. marxianus PG was demonstrated by a extremely rapid attack on plant tissue. This activity appears to be at least equivalent to that of several commercial preparations used for separating plant cells for protoplast preparation (RMC, unpublished data). Most of the endo-PGs produced by plant pathogens and saprophytes have so far been reported to possess macerating activity. PG secreted by K. marxianus CCT 3172 also had a strong activity in reducing the viscosity of cocoa pulp. Cocoa pulp generally contains 1 - 1.5% (w/w) of pectin consisting of 68% esterification and 11.6% methoxyl content [18]. 

Consumption represents cocoa bean grindings adjusted by net imports or exports of cocoa products and chocolate converted into bean equivalents in thousands of metric tons (per capita, kg). 

The main current potential application of lipase-catalyzed fat-modification processes is in the production of valuable confectionery fats for instance, alternative methods of obtaining cocoa-butter equivalents by converting cheap palm-oil fats and stearic acid to cocoa-butter-like fats. The reaction is executed in a water-poor medium, such as hexane, to prevent hydrolysis. At least one commercial apphcation exists. Loders Croklaan (Unilever) has an enzymatic interesterification plant in Wormerveer, the Netherlands. Many other new potential applications of lipases have been proposed of which some will certainly be economically feasible. Examples and details can be found in chapter 9 of this book. 

Stearic acid is a long chain SFA present, to varying degrees, in virtually all edible fats and oils. Table IV provides the fatty acid composition of fats and oils commonly consumed by humans. The most abundant food sources of stearic acid in the American diet are beef fat and cocoa butter (chocolate). Cocoa butter is valued by chocolate manufacturers because it remains solid at room temperature but dissolves quickly at body temperature, a unique characteristic of chocolate that is due largely to stearic acid. During the last few decades as cocoa butter prices and supplies have fluctuated, food companies began looking for alternative oils that could provide equivalent amounts of stearic acid in order to retain the desirable physical characteristics. Several... 

In the UK at least, the Adulteration Act of 1860, the result of the deliberations of the above committee, was the beginning of a more scientific approach to authentication of fats and oils. However, it was still being stated after the turn of the century (Sloane 1907) that, in the USA, butter was being adulterated by oleomargarine and lard, and cream by cottonseed oil and other fats. Indeed the USA equivalent of the UK Adulteration Act, the 1938 Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act, was only passed after a series of even later cases of adulteration coconut and cottonseed replacing cocoa butter and milk-fat (1922), peanut oil in olive oil (1923), lard contaminating butter (1926) and sesame oil in olive oil used in tinned sardines (1936) (Kurtzweil, 1999). 

The non-cocoa fats used in confectionery are mixtures known as cocoa butter alternatives (CBAs), of which the most important are cocoa butter equivalents (CBEs). These are formulated from non-hydrogenated fat fractions with a tri-acylglycerol composition almost identical with cocoa butter and which are miscible with cocoa butter in all proportions. Other alternative fats such as cocoa butter replacers (CBRs) and cocoa butter substitutes (CBSs) are used, particularly in the manufacture of specialized forms of chocolate application such as coatings. 

FSA (Food Standards Agency) (2001) The estimation of cocoa butter equivalents in cocoa butter and chocolate fats by triglyceride analysis collaborative trial. Information Bulletin, No. 13, October 2001. 

Lipp, M., Simoneau, C., Ulberth, F, Anklam, E., Crews, C., Brereton, P., de Greyt, W., Schwack, W. and Wiedmaier, C. (2001) Composition of genuine cocoa butter and cocoa butter equivalents. J. Food Compos. Anal., 14, 399—408. 

Neri, A., Simonetti, M.S., Cossignani, L. and Damiani, P. (1998) Identification of cocoabutter equivalents added to cocoa butter-I. An approach by fatty acid composition of the triacylglycerol sub-fractions separated by Ag+-HPLC. Z. Lebensm. Unters. Forsch. A., 206(6), 387-392. 

Nesareretnam, K. and Razak bin Mohd Ali, A. (1992) Engkabang (illipe)—an excellent component for cocoa butter equivalent fat. J. Sci. Food Agri., 60, 15-20. 

Simoneau, C., Hannaert, P. and Anklam, A. (1999) Detection and quantification of cocoa butter equivalents in chocolate model systems analysis of triglyceride profiles by high resolution GC. Food Chem., 65, 111-116. 

Simoneau, C., Lipp, M., Ulberth, U. and Anklam, E. (2000) Quantification of cocoa butter equivalents in mixtures with cocoa butter by chromatographic methods and multivariate data evaluation. Eur. Food Res. Technol., 211(2), 147-152. 

Cocoa butter (CB) has a challenging chemistry and has attracted many efforts to develop lower cost, acceptable alternatives. The following definitions provide a quick introduction to this field (1) cocoa butter equivalents (CBEs) are compounded mostly from tropical oils other than palm. Because their melting and crystallization properties closely resemble CB, they are compatible as diluents at all levels of substitution (2) cocoa butter replacers (CBRs) are made from nondairy oils (typically soybean, cottonseed, or palm) partially hydrogenated for maximum trans-CIS isomer formation to acquire a steep melting profile. They are best used for enrobing bakery products, but their melting profiles can be improved by chill fractionation and (3) cocoa butter substitutes (CBSs) are made primarily from... 

Heat 1 cup of nonfat milk in the microwave oven. Put 2 tablespoons of dark cocoa and one tablespoon of sugar or the equivalent of artificial sweetener into a mug. Pour the heated milk into the mug and stir. Top the mug with a few mini-marshmallows for a treat. 

Sal fat (Shorea robusta). This tree, which grows in Northern India, is felled for timber. Its seed oil is rich in stearic acid, and it can be used as a cocoa butter equivalent (CBE). The major acids are palmitic (2-8%), stearic (35 8%), oleic (35 2%), linoleic (2-3%), and arachidic acid (6-11%). Its major triacylglycerols are of the SUS type required of a cocoa butter equivalent. Sal olein is an excellent emolhent, and sal stearin, with POP 1%, POSt 13%, and StOSt 60%, is a superior cocoa butter equivalent (122-124). It is one of the six permitted fats (palm oil, iUipe butter, kokum butter, sal fat, shea butter, and mango kernel fat), which, in some countries at least, can partially replace cocoa butter in chocolate (86). 

Unilever developed a method for upgrading palm mid-fraction (PMF) as a cocoa butter equivalent. The PMF is too rich in palmitic acid and has too little stearic acid, but this deficiency can be repaired by enzyme-catalysed acidolysis with stearic acid. Reaction is confined to the exchange of palmitic acid by stearic acid at the sn-1 and 3 positions with no movement of oleic acid from the sn-2 position. A similar product is produced enzymatically by acidolysis of high-oleic sunflower oil (rich in triolein) and stearic acid. 

Chemical interesterification would lead to randomization of all of the acyl chains, and the products would have different melting behavior from that required by a cocoa butter equivalent (188). 

Fractionation technology, in particular solvent fractionation, has been utilized to produce some very highly specialized edible oil products. High-stability liquid oils, with AOM stability results of 350 hours minimum without the beneht of added antioxidants, and cocoa butter equivalents are two examples of products that can be produced with fractionation technology. Fractionation technologies may also be used to produce basestocks for utilization as components in hnished products for various applications. 

Solvent Fractionation. This process is the most expensive because of solvent loss, solvent recovery equipment, much lower temperature requirement, and stringent safety features. The process involves the use of solvents such as hexane or acetone. The oil is first dissolved in the solvent followed by cooling to the desired temperatures to obtain the desired crystals. Cooling is effected by brine if very low temperature is required. The miscella containing the partially crystallized oil and solvent is then filtered under vacuum suction in an enclosed drum filter. The olein miscella and stearin miscella are then separately distilled to remove the solvent and recover the fractions. Yield of olein is about 80%. The solvent process nowadays is only viable in the production of high value products such as cocoa butter equivalent or other specialty fats. 

Double Fractionation. Double fractionation is carried out for the production of palm olein with higher iodine value of above 60 or for the production of palm-midfraction (PMF), which contains a high proportion of oleodipalmitin used for production of palm-based cocoa butter equivalent (60, 61). Usually the first olein obtained is recycled back to the plant for further cooling, crystallization, and filtration. The second stearin otained is termed palmmidfraction. Special and skillful control of the crystallization of both stages is critical in achieving the desired quality of the products. 

Because of the similarity in the chemical compositions of the symmetrical-type fats and cocoa butter, they are compatible with each other in almost any proportions, and for this reason these specialty fats are usually called cocoa butter equivalents (105). In certain countries, legislation allows up to about 15% of the cocoa butter in chocolate to be replaced by symmetrical-type specialty fat and the product may still be described as chocolate. In terms of texture and flavor these products are very close to real (cocoa butter) chocolate. 

TABLE 3. Fatty Acid Profiles of CBE-SCOs—Microbial Oils for use as a Cocoa Butter Equivalent—in Comparison with Cocoa Butter. 

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