Closed innovation

Research and Development in large companies used to be internal in the past decades. Many R D project, however, have led to results that appeared not to be useful for the respective companies leading to waste in terms of time, money and missed market opportunities. However, some of those results, although not valuable for the company itself, turned into valuable spin-off companies [18]. To limit waste and increase the success rate of technology projects, a new business model gradually emerged from Closed Innovation (with extensive control) into Open Innovation. 

Going beyond protection and compliance, new Type I and Type II AccuRow safety cans are the easlest-to-use... nothing else comes close Innovations Include a Safe-Squeeze trigger for fast, smooth, controlled pouring and exclusive content ID Zone to reduce misuse. High quality, advanced performance Is backed by an Industry exclusive 10-year warranty. For more details and a FREE brochure, simply visit our website. 

Innovation, in all its forms, is key to the effective achievement of new generations of products and systems. However, in order to develop and take forward the innovative process to meet a new set of challenges, Christophers has suggested the need for a shift from the traditional approach, defined as closed innovation, with its orientation towards secrecy and the retention of ideas, to one of open innovation (Chesbrough, 2003 Chesbrough et ah, 2006 www.col-tech.org) in which ideas and solutions are widely sought both from within and from outside the organisation. 

Characteristics of closed innovation Characteristics of open innovation... 

Perhaps the most important innovation of all is in the thermomechanical control processes, involving closely controlled simultaneous application of heat and deformation, to improve the mechanical properties, especially of ultra-microalloyed compositions. Processes such as controlled rolling are now standard procedures in steel mills. 

Recent innovations [19] have circumvented the heat dissipation and sample stream distortion inherent in most of the previous designs. In one apparatus, developed by R S Technologies, Inc. (Wakefield, RI, USA), Teflon capillary tubes are aligned close to each other in the electrophoretic chamber. Coolant is pumped through the Teflon capillary tubes during the electrophoretic run while the electrophoretic separation is accomplished in the interstitial volume between the Teflon tubes. 

Both approaches are useful and they are also complementary because it is important to know where a chemical that may be best in its class falls out with respect to hazard. For example, a surfactant that is best in its class will be rapidly biodegradable, but most surfactants have some aquatic toxicity because they are surface active. However, surfactants as a class are typically close to the green end of the hazard spectrum because they tend to have low hazard ratings for most other endpoints. It is also possible to have chemicals that are best in their class but that are still problematic. For example, some dioxin congeners are less toxic than others but one would not presume that a dioxin congener that is best in its class is green . Concurrent use of the best in class approach with the absence of hazard approach is also important because it drives continual advancement within a class toward the ideal green chemistry. Once innovation occurs and a chemical or product is developed that meets the same or better performance criteria with lower hazard, what was once considered best in class shifts. 

This book consists of a series of works that evaluate various aspects related to the public financing of pharmaceuticals. In all health systems with majority public funding, the financing of pharmaceuticals constitutes one of the key factors in reform policies and health cost containment measures. This importance of pharmaceutical spending can be explained by both its relative size (its share within health expenditure as a whole), and its rapid growth, which is closely related to the constant incorporation of therapeutic innovations. 

A process innovation was introduced by Valentine [61], who added an SOx sorbent for mitigating the inhibiting effects of the formed oxysulfides. This process was developed for sulfur removal from extra heavy oils, bitumens, and its emulsions, such as the trade mark Orimulsion. Any active biocatalyst may be used in this process carried out at temperatures close to 50°C. The main features disclosed in patents protecting the use of R. rhodochrous-bas d biocatalysts, in desulfurization reactions are summarized in Table 12. 

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