Clinical chemistry analysis

Hafner, F.W. (1982). Kodak Ektachem multilayer film technology for clinical chemistry analysis. Principles of multilayer film analysis - Colorimetric analysis slides. In Kaiser, E., Gabl, F., Muller, M.N. and Bayer, P.M. (Eds.), Proc. Xlth Int. Congr. Clin. Chem. Vienna (1981). Walter de Gruyter, Berlin, New York, 1161-1165. 

Wilding P, Zdva JF, Wdde C. Transport of specimens for clinical chemistry analysis. Ann Chn Biochem, 1977 14 301-6. 

Cassaday M, Diebler H, Herron R, Pelavin M, Svenjak D, Vlastelica D. Capsule chemistry technology for high-speed clinical chemistry analysis. Clin Chem 1985 31 1453-6. 

Gas Chromatography in Clinical Chemistry. Analysis by Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry and Treatment of Data... 

The applications of Beer s law for the quantitative analysis of samples in environmental chemistry, clinical chemistry, industrial chemistry and forensic chemistry are numerous. Examples from each of these fields follow. 

From Table II, we can reach the following Important conclusions. First, for simple separations of only a few components and not great demands on analysis time (e.g., 15-30 minutes), PLB are the logical choice. As the number of components increase, as their relative retentions become smaller, or as the time demands increase, one ought to use small particle PB. With respect to clinical chemistry, many problems can now be successfully solved with PLB. Ultimately because of the faster analysis potential, small particle PB will be column of choice. However extra care must be excerised in using such colimns. As experience grows with small particle PB, it is clear that they will become simpler to work with. 

The remarkable selectivity that is inherent in the reaction of an antibody with the antigen or hapten against which it was raised is the basis for the extensive use of immunoassay for the rapid analysis of samples in clinical chemistry. Immunochemical reactions offer a means by which the applicability of potentiometric techniques can be broadened. A number of strategies for incorporating immunoassay into the methodology of potentiometry have been explored... 

The electrolytes Na", and Cl are second only to glucose in being the most frequently run hospital tests. Many clinical chemistry analyzers now contain an ISE module for electrolyte analysis. Most commonly the module will consist of a Na -glass electrode, a valinomycin/PVC electrode, a Ag/AgCl pellet or a quaternary ammonium ion/PVC electrode and a reference electrode. A selective electrode for the bicarbonate ion continues to elude workers in the field. An indirect measurement of HCOf must be made. The sample is usually reacted with acid to evolve carbon dioxide gas which is measured with a traditional Severinghaus type CO2 electrode. Alternatively, the sample is treated with base to convert HCO to CO3 and a carbonate ion-selective electrode is used In this manner, the complete primary electrolyte profile is obtained electrochemically. 

The list of elements and their species listed above is not exhaustive. It is limited to the relatively simple compounds that have been determined by an important number of laboratories specializing in speciation analysis. Considering the economic importance of the results, time has come to invest in adequate CRMs. There is a steadily increasing interest in trace element species in food and in the gastrointestinal tract where the chemical form is the determinant factor for their bioavailability (Crews 1998). In clinical chemistry the relevance of trace elements will only be fully elucidated when the species and transformation of species in the living system have been measured (ComeUs 1996 Cornelis et al. 1998). Ultimately there will be a need for adequate RMs certified for the trace element species bound to large molecules, such as proteins. 

Ingamells CO, PiTARD FF (1986) Applied Geochemical Analysis, pp L-84.Wiley, New York. International Federation of Clinical Chemistry (IFCC) (1978) Expert Panel on Nomenclature and Principles of Quality Control in Clinical Chemistry. Clin Chim Acta 83 L89F-202F. International Organization for Standardization (ISO) (1993) Guide to the expression of uncertainty. Geneva. 

Many pesticides are neurotoxicants poisoning the nervous system. A number of pesticides are acetyl cholinesterase inhibitors (Serat and Mengle 1973). Generally, pesticides determination has been performed by GC since the 1960 s (Morrison and Durham 1971 Fournier et al. 1978). There are no reference materials for pesticides in urine or serum, although as with PAHs there are a number biological matrices certified for the content of various pesticides available for environmental food and agriculture analysis and which may have some application in clinical chemistry. 

The analysis of the methylxanthines (caffeine, theobromine, and theophylline) is important in the areas of nutrition and clinical chemistry. These three compounds compose the majority of the alkaloids present in coffee, tea, cocoa, cola nuts, and guarana. 

Analytical studies in clinical chemistry relating to the determination of methylxanthines are concentrated in two areas. The first of these involves the analysis of various ethical pharmaceuticals. The second area involves the analysis of various body fluids for methylxanthines and their metabolites. 

In the last few years, optimization techniques have become more widely used in the pharmaceutical industry. Some of these have appeared in the literature, but a far greater number remain as in-house information, using the same techniques indicated in this chapter, but with modifications and computer programs specific to the particular company. An excellent review of the application of optimization techniques in the pharmaceutical sciences was published in 1981 [20]. This covers not only formulation and processing, but also analysis, clinical chemistry, and medicinal chemistry. 

The spectroscopic community, and indeed, the chemical community at large is not the only group of scientists concerned with these issues. Other scientific disciplines also are concerned with ways to evaluate methods of chemical analysis. Notable among them are the pharmaceutical communities and the clinical chemistry communities. In those communities, considerations of the sort we are addressing are even more important, for at least two reasons ... 

Clinical chemistry, particularly the determination of the biologically relevant electrolytes in physiological fluids, remains the key area of ISEs application [15], as billions of routine measurements with ISEs are performed each year all over the world [16], The concentration ranges for the most important physiological ions detectable in blood fluids with polymeric ISEs are shown in Table 4.1. Sensors for pH and for ionized calcium, potassium and sodium are approved by the International Federation of Clinical Chemistry (IFCC) and implemented into commercially available clinical analyzers [17], Moreover, magnesium, lithium, and chloride ions are also widely detected by corresponding ISEs in blood liquids, urine, hemodialysis solutions, and elsewhere. Sensors for the determination of physiologically relevant polyions (heparin and protamine), dissolved carbon dioxide, phosphates, and other blood analytes, intensively studied over the years, are on their way to replace less reliable and/or awkward analytical procedures for blood analysis (see below). 

The properties of a pH electrode are characterized by parameters like linear response slope, response time, sensitivity, selectivity, reproducibility/accuracy, stability and biocompatibility. Most of these properties are related to each other, and an optimization process of sensor properties often leads to a compromised result. For the development of pH sensors for in-vivo measurements or implantable applications, both reproducibility and biocompatibility are crucial. Recommendations about using ion-selective electrodes for blood electrolyte analysis have been made by the International Federation of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine (IFCC) [37], IUPAC working party on pH has published IUPAC s recommendations on the definition, standards, and procedures... 

A.J. Tudos, G.A.J. Besselink, and R.B.M. Schasfoort, Trends in miniaturized total analysis systems for point-of-care testing in clinical chemistry. Lab on a Chip 1, 83-95 (2001). 

General books [213-217], chapters [218], and reviews were published in the 1980s reporting the suitability of CL and BL in chemical analysis [219-222], the specific analytical applications of BL [223], the CL detection systems in the gas phase [224], in chromatography [225, 226], the use of different chemiluminescent tags in immunoassay, and applications in clinical chemistry [227-232] as well as the applications of CL reactions in biomedical analysis [233]. 

In many industrial areas, as well as food and agriculture, the amount of sample available to the analyst is not normally a limiting factor. However, in clinical chemistry the opposite applies, as no patient is willing to donate large volumes of blood for analysis Similarly in forensic work, the sample material may also be limited in size. Sample size is linked to the limit of detection. Improved detection levels can sometimes be achieved by taking a larger mass of sample. However,... 

Weil, C.S. (1982). Statistical analysis and normality of selected hematologic and clinical chemistry measurements used in toxicologic studies. Arch. Toxicol. Suppl. 5 237-253. 

Biomedical analytical chemistry happens to be one of the latest disciplines which essentially embraces the principles and techniques of both analytical chemistry and biochemistry. It has often been known as clinical chemistry . This particular aspect of analytical chemistry has gained significant cognizance in the recent past by virtue of certain important techniques being included very much within its scope of analysis, namely colorimetric assays, enzymic assays, radioimmunoassays and automated methods of clinical analysis. 

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