Ethical pharmaceuticals

Numerous applications for biocides have been found in fields as diverse as ethical pharmaceuticals and cat litter products. The aim of this Cl book is two-fold to provide a comprehensive guide to the use of biocides across a range of applications and to aid in the selection of a biocide that is "fit for purpose". It covers a Cl cross-section of traditional measures, novel ideas and innovative developments, as well as addressing the biocides market, the political outlook and future trends of biocide use. 

Analytical studies in clinical chemistry relating to the determination of methylxanthines are concentrated in two areas. The first of these involves the analysis of various ethical pharmaceuticals. The second area involves the analysis of various body fluids for methylxanthines and their metabolites. 

Thus in this volume, as a result of a careful juxtaposition of what might be called classical natural product-based drug discovery where pure single compounds or their close chemical relatives, are used as ethical pharmaceutical agents, with commentaries on the history and use of agents found in functional foods and alternative therapies , the reader will have a more nuanced understanding of the role that natural... 

Provision 1 above, establishing a strategic alliance or collaborative relationship, is the most difficult to implement. In fact, few arrangements of this kind exist between fine-chemical companies and their customers. There are two main stumbling blocks. From the perspective of the fine-chemical company, it is the request of the customer to have the liberty to switch to other suppliers if these are able to grant better prices or other contractual terms. From the perspective of the customer, it is the desire of the fine-chemical companies to keep the intellectual property rights on discoveries that they make in the context of an alliance. This is especially the case if the customer is an ethical pharmaceutical company (see Chapter 14). 

Export volumes of Chindia are still modest with regard to both regulated and non-regulated intermediates. Western fine-chemical and ethical pharmaceutical companies typically source not more than 10% of their chemical requirements from there. 

Often, the challenges experienced by an ethical pharmaceutical company in development of water-insoluble drug products revolve around the following factors ... 

This article presents a brief sketch of the economics of the R D intensive ethical pharmaceutical industry, highlighting its dynamic characteristics. The approach taken here minimizes the use of static analysis, and thus avoids the use of pure or perfect competition as an analytical tool. In this theoretical discussion, certain empirical studies will be cited as support for aspects of the theory being developed. 

Cocks, D.L. Product innovation and the dynamic elements of competition in the ethical pharmaceutical industry. In Drug Development and Marketing, Helms, R.B., Ed. American Enterprise Institute Washington, D.C., 1975 225-254. 

Wehrli (1997) stated case reports from Australia, the United States and the United Kingdom and the activities of the Pharmaceutical Security Institute (PSl), which was founded by the majority of ethical pharmaceutical companies and operates under the auspices of the International Federation of Pharmaceutical Manufacturers Association (IFPMA). Wehrli further indicated that an API may be counterfeited in one country, passed by a circuitous route into another for formulation, from there to a third country where the product is sold. 

Member companies shall proactively and strictly comply with the Fair Competition Code Concerning Restrictions on Premium Offers in the Ethical Pharmaceutical Drugs Manufacturing Industry, based on high ethical standards. 

Producers of ethical pharmaceuticals are monopolists to the extent that they have patents on their prodncts. Instead of conventional competition on price and quality, there is competition in innovation between rival producers, so that a number of manufacturers may offer, for example, different H2-antagonists for the treatment of gastric nlcers. Insofar as the patient requires a particular product when it is under patent, however, he or she is faced by a monopoly producer. 

Before any new therapeutic ethical pharmaceutical product can be introduced to the market in the United States and most other industrialized countries, some R D must be undertaken, but the specific activities and required R D expenditures vary enormously with the kind of product under development. New therapeutic ethical pharmaceutical products fall into four broad categories ... 

Another more indirect way to measure returns on R D is to estimate the profitability of research-intensive pharmaceutical companies. Pharmaceutical firms invest in the discovery, development, production, marketing and distribution of many products, including some that are not ethical pharmaceuticals, The total profit or return on a company s investment in a given period is a mixture of returns on past investments made over many previous years on many different projects. 

Until 1986, the NSF estimates were higher than those of PMA. Because the NSF survey measures total company R D, including R D on both ethical pharmaceuticals and other lines of business, the difference is to be expected. Since 1986,... 

R D dollars pursue returns, and the risks investors will take to obtain those returns depend on how great they promise to be. To understand the drivers behind the pharmaceutical R D phenomenon of the 1980s, it is necessary to examine closely how the returns to these investments have been changing over time. Subsequent chapters of this report examine trends in the average cost of discovering and developing new ethical pharmaceuticals and the net returns to bringing these products to market. 

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