Chromium, hexavalent cancer risk

Braver ER, Infante P, Chu K. 1985. An analysis of lung cancer risk from exposure to hexavalent chromium. Teratog Carcinog Mutagen 5 365-378. 

Park, R. M., and Stayner, L. T. (2006). A search for thresholds and other nonlinearities in the relationship between hexavalent chromium and lung cancer. Risk Anal 26(1), 79-88. 

Hexavalent forms of chrominm are the most important for indnstrial apphcations. Chrominm (VI) is associated with an increased risk of lung cancer. It is primarily ntilized by the steel industry for the production of ferrochrome, which is, in tnm, nsed for the production of stainless steel. Unlike trivalent chromium, hexavalent chrominm easily... 

Hexavalent Chromium. After concluding that hexavalent chromium at existing exposure levels posed a high lung cancer risk to workers, NIOSH in 1975 recommended that OSHA set a permissible exposure level (PEL) of 1 microgram per cubic meter (pg/m ). Because the existing national consensus standard ... 

Toxicology. The water-soluble hexavalent chromium compounds such as chromic acid mist and certain chromate dusts are severe irritants of the nasopharynx, larynx, lungs, and skin exposure to certain hexavalent chromium compounds, mainly water insoluble, appears to be related to an increased risk of lung cancer. 

The hexavalent form of chromium is a potent teratogen, primarily affecting bone formation. However, trivalent chromium was not found to be teratogenic. Animal studies also show an increase in the risk of cancer after exposure to chromium(VI) compounds. 

Hexavalent chromium (6 ") is a recognized carcinogen, and industrial exposure to fiimes and dusts containing this metal is associated with increased incidence of lung cancer, dermatitis, and skin ulcers. Environmental health risks arise from soil contamination by Cr " waste disposal sites left by the leather tanning and dyestuff industries. Cr is more efficiently absorbed than Cr " and its toxicity and carcinogenic effects involve reduction to Cr and Cr " by cysteine, with the formation of intracellular DNA adducts. Cr species are relatively nontoxic partly because of their poor intestinal absorption and rapid excretion in urine. 

Crump, C., Crump, K., Hack, E., Luippold, R., Mundt, K., Liebig, E., Panko, J., Paustenbach, D., and Proctor, D. (2003). Dose-response and risk assessment of airborne hexavalent chromium and lung cancer mortality. Risk Anal 23(6), 1147-1163. 

Occupational exposure to chromium(VI) compounds has been related to an increased risk of lung cancer. Several hexavalent compounds of chromium, including chromium trioxide, are hsted in lARC Group 1 ("carcinogenic to humans") and are classified as "select carcinogens" under the criteria of the OSHA Laboratory Standard. Long-term exposure to chromium trioxide or chromium(VI) salts may cause ulceration of the respiratory system and skin. Exposure to chromium trioxide by inhalation or skin contact may lead to sensitization. Chromium trioxide has exhibited teratogenic activity in animal tests. 

Toxic effects of Cr + compounds are manifested only at extremely high doses. Much more toxic are hexavalent chromium compounds, which cause growth failure and liver and kidney damage. Chromate contact with the skin may cause dermatitis. Chronic exposure to dust containing chromates increases the risk of lung cancer development. 

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