Canned infant formulae

The only full-fat oilseed flour with significant domestic sales is soy. It has been used in bakery products, breakfast cereals, canned baby foods, canned infant formulas for lactose-intolerant babies, and adult dietary beverages (24). 

Nutrition may have a considerable effect. A high intake of milk protein in neonates will result in an increase in most plasma amino acids, especially methionine and tyrosine. Canned infant formulae may contain homocitrulline, which may appear in the patient s urine. White meat (chicken ) will contain carnosine, anserine, and... 

We have seen figures and tables here showing that the lead level dropped in evaporated milk from 0.5 ppm to less than 0.1, for canned fruit juices from 0.3 ppm to about 0.014 ppm, and finally, for canned infant formula from 0.1 ppm to 0.02 ppm. As children absorb substantially more lead in the early phase of childhood than adults, the US Food and Drug Administration has made a special recommendation for infants and children, to which I referred already above The lead intake from all sources should be less than 100 ig per day for children up to 6 months of age, and should be less than 150 pg per day for children aged between 6 months and 2 years. 

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) reported that in 1979, over 90% of food containers contained lead-soldered seams. The FDA has since sought to reduce a child s daily dietary lead intake by, for example, establishing permissible lead residues in evaporated milk and evaporated skim milk and reducing lead in canned infant formulas, infant fruit, and vegetable juices. By 1986, the percentage of food containers with lead-soldered seams was reduced to 20%. (ATSDR, 1988 CDC, 1985 EPA, 1988). 

Another commercially available product containing naturally occurring marine products is Formulaid , produced by Martek Biosciences as a nutritional supplement for infant formulas. Formulaid contains two fatty acids, arachidonic acid (ARA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), extracted from a variety of marine microalgae. ARA and DHA are the most abundant polyunsaturated fatty acids found in breast milk, and they are the most important fatty acids used in the development of brain gray matter. They are especially desirable for use in infant formulas because they come from nonmeat sources and can be advertised as vegetarian additives to the product. 

Analysis of vitamin content of food materials appears to be a developing field. B vitamins in rice were analyzed using a mobile phase which contained pentanesulfonic acid and heptanesulfonic acid (558). Although the peaks were not sharp, the separation of the vitamins was satisfactory. Vitamin D in fortified milk has b n analyzed after removal Of cholesterol and carotenes in a preliminary cleanup (559, 540). Vitamin A has been analyzed in margarine, infant formula, and fortified milk (541, 542). Reports of the analysis of other vitamins in food are few to te but this mode of analysis can be expected to rapidly expand in the future in light of the variety of vitamin determinations in formulations which have been done (see Section VIII,F,l). 

It has been suggested that lactoferrin may only confer beneficial immune effects when consumed in the form of breast milk (Lonnerdal, 2003). When added to infant formula, lactoferrin may be affected by its prior bioactivity how it was added (blended or dissolved) and extent of heat treatment of the formula (Lonnerdal, 2003). There is evidence that lactoferrin can be inactivated by invading pathogens or even enhance microbial pathogenicity. For example, the pneumococcal surface protein A of Streptococcus pneumoniae was reported to bind to lactoferrin and protect the bacteria from the killing action of lactoferrin (Ward et ah, 2005). 

Once diagnosed, galactosemia can be treated by restricting dietary galactose, especially by excluding lactose from infant formulas. 

Currently, high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) methods have been widely used in the analysis of tocopherols and tocotrienols in food and nutrition areas. Each form of tocopherol and tocotrienol can be separated and quantified individually using HPLC with either a UV or fluorescence detector. The interferences are largely reduced after separation by HPLC. Therefore, the sensitivity and specificity of HPLC methods are much higher than those obtained with the colorimetric, polarimetric, and GC methods. Also, sample preparation in the HPLC methods is simpler and more efficiently duplicated than in the older methods. Many HPLC methods for the quantification of tocopherols and tocotrienols in various foods and biological samples have been reported. Method number 992.03 of the AOAC International Official Methods of Analysis provides an HPLC method to determine vitamin E in milk-based infant formula. It could probably be said that HPLC methods have become dominant in the analysis of tocopherols and tocotrienols. Therefore, the analytical protocols for tocopherols and tocotrienols in this unit are focused on HPLC methods. Normal and reversed-phase HPLC methods are discussed in the separation and quantification of tocopherols and tocotrienols (see Basic Protocol). Sample... 

For the determination of vitamin E in seed oils by HPLC, the oils can simply be dissolved in hexane and analyzed directly. Solid-food samples demand a more rigorous method of solvent extraction. In a modified Rose-Gottlieb method to extract vitamin E from infant formulas (86), dipotassium oxalate solution (35% w/v) was substituted for ammonia to avoid alkalizing the medium, and methyl tert-butyl ether was substituted for diethyl ether because of its stability against the formation of peroxides. 

Bone et al.20 originally showed that MP was as highly variable in the infant retina as it is in the adult retina. Z is the dominant carotenoid in the center of the adult retina and L predominates in the periphery (thus, in vivo measures of MP account mostly for zeaxanthin concentration). This ratio appears to be reversed in the infant retina, where L dominates in the center (at this point, of course, the macula is quite immature and similar to the periphery). Although all of the factors responsible for the wide variation in infant MP have not been studied, dietary intake of L and Z is still clearly necessary. Whereas MP can be manipulated in the adult via intake of xanthophyll-rich foods, the obvious concern with infants is that food options are limited to breast milk or manufactured infant formulas. Breast milk contains at least 300 defined nutrients, whereas most infant formulas contain approximately 60-70 defined nutrients76 Currently, infant formula does not contain L and Z in other than trace amounts,76 and many formulas are completely devoid of L. In contrast, breast milk contains L and Z in concentrations that are approximately proportional to maternal intake of these carotenoids.77 These observations are important since many infants are exclusively formula fed. Johnson et al.21 showed that breast-fed infants and formula-fed infants had the same levels of plasma L and Z at birth. After 1 month, however, plasma L and Z significantly increased for the breast-fed infants and decreased in the formula-fed infants. This implies that retinal levels in formula-fed infants are also low. 

Pro-oxidant conditions are favoured in infant formulae by the presence of iron and of vitamin C and can lead to oxidative damage to tryptophan residues, which here is of particular importance, tryptophan often being the limiting amino acid. Using a-lactalbumin as a model compound, as it is high in tryptophan, Puscasu and Birlouez-Aragon484 studied the loss of fluorescence due to tryptophan (Aex=290/Aem=340 nm) on incubation with lactose, preformed early and advanced MRP (from proteose-peptone, because it is low in tryptophan), H202/Fe2+, or ascorbate/Fe3+. In each case, after 3 h, there was an appreciable loss of tryptophan from the pH 4.6-soluble protein of about 28%. The MRPs, both formed and preformed, exhibited fluorescence at Aex = 350/Aem = 435-440 (major) and Aex = 330/Aem = 420 nm. 

Biles, J.E., McNeal, T.P., Begley, T.H., 1997, Determination of Bisphenol-A Migrating From Epoxy Can coatings to Infant formula Concentrates. J of Agric. Food Chemi. 1997,45,4697-4700. 

In humans, the conversion of ALA to EPA and DHA is extremely slow, with only about 15% and 5% of ALA converted to EPA and DHA, respectively (Cunnane, 1995). This conversion appears to be affected by a number of dietary factors. For example, a diet rich in linoleic acid has been found to reduce this conversion by as much as 40% (Emken, 1995). In addition, saturated and lruns fatty acids also interfere with ALA desaturation and elongation steps (Ackman and Cunnane, 1992 HouwelingenandHornstra, 1994). DHA can be reconverted back to EPA, although in humans it appears to be a very minor pathway (Brossard et al., 1996). DHA appears to play an important in the brain and retina and was found to be incorporated during the last trimester of pregnancy and the first year of life. Visual acuity was shown to develop much faster in preterm infants fed formulas rich in DHA compared with standard infant formulas low in long chain n-3 fatty acids (Jorgensen et al., 1996). 

A fish oil supplement for infant formula has been shown to be effective at maintaining concentrations of co-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in erythrocytes. Although human milk contains only small amounts of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids, it contains all the w-6 and w-3 fatty acids found in erythrocyte membranes. Carlson et al. (1987) demonstrated that if infant formula is supplemented with fish oil rich in EPA (C20 5, o>-3) and DHA (C22 6, w-3), levels of these polyunsaturated fatty acids can be maintained post-birth, in erythrocyte membranes. These results indicate the effectiveness of providing long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids directly in the diet rather than as precursors. 

It is clear from this discussion that carnitine is required in humans for the oxidation of long-chain fatty acids. In humans, carnitine is derived from both dietary sources and endogenous biosynthesis. Meat products, particularly red meats, and dairy products are important dietary sources of carnitine. Since biosynthesis can meet all physiological requirements, carnitine is not an essential nutrient. Premature infants are an exception to this rule as they lack a mature biosynthetic system and have limited tissue carnitine stores. As many infant formulas, particularly those based on soy protein, are low in carnitine, premature infants receiving a significant part of their nutrition from such formulas may be susceptible to carnitine deficiency. 

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