Calibration vapor pressure

The fixed points in the lTS-90 are given in Tabie 11.39. Platinum resistance thermometers are recommended for use between 14 K and 1235 K (the freezing point of silver), calibrated against the fixed points. Below 14 K either the vapor pressure of helium or a constant-volume gas thermometer is to be used. Above 1235 K radiometry is to be used in conjunction with the Planck radiation law,... 

Direct or indirect methods may be used to determine moisture in dehydrated foods. Indirect methods must be calibrated in terms of direct methods—the most common of which are the oven, distillation, and Fischer methods. Accuracy of the direct methods is difficult to evaluate except by comparison with a chosen reference method. Several reference methods are reviewed, but none can be given an unqualified recommendation as most practical and suitable for all foods. An indirect measure of moisture is the equilibrium vapor pressure of water, which can be measured easily and accurately. Arguments are presented to show that vapor pressure may be a better index of the stability of dehydrated foods than the moisture content, which has been frequently used for this purpose. 

Temperature Tgo in the range between 3.0 and 24.5561 K is defined in terms of 3He or 4He constant volume gas thermometers (CVGT), calibrated at the triple points of Ne and H2, and at a temperature between 3.0 and 5.0 K that has been obtained from vapor pressure versus temperature relations for He. 

Vapor Pressure Osmometry - The number average molecular weights of polymers with Mn < 20,000 were determined using "Model 232A Molecular Weight Apparatus, Wescan Instruments, Inc., 3018 Scott Blvd., Santa Clara, CA 95050". Toluene was used as solvent and the instrument was calibrated using polystyrene of Mn 9,000 and 20,400. 

To prove that this method can be applied also to solids with strong ionic bonding, NaCl was investigated as an example. Also in this case an aluminia Knudsen cell was used, the orifice diameter was calibrated with gold. Figure 69 shows a graphical presentation of the vapor pressure data obtained, compared with data from the literature (Kelly)68. ... 

Number-average molar masses were determined using a vapor pressure osmometer (VPO) (Hitachi 117 Molecular Weight Apparatus) at 54.8 0.1°C in toluene (Fisher Scientific, certified A.C.S.) which was distilled from freshly crushed CaH2. The VPO apparatus was calibrated with pentaerythritol tetrastearate (Pressure Chemical). Gel permeation chromatographic (GPC) analyses were performed in tetrahydrofuran by HPLC (Perkin-Elmer 601 HPLC) using six y-Styragel columns (106, 105, 10l, 103, 500, and 100 A) after calibration with standard polystyrene samples. 

GPC was calibrated with polystyrene standards. M was also determined by vapor pressure osmometry (VPO) on a Wescan model 233 molecular weight apparatus at a current setting of 50pamp in toluene... 

To construct the adsorption isotherm, the adsorption, desorption, and calibration cycle shown in Fig. 15.11 is repeated for each data point required. Errors are not cumulative since each point is independently determined. Relative pressures corresponding to each data point are established by measuring the saturated vapor pressure using any of the preceding methods or by adding 15 torrs to ambient pressure. Thus, if X is the mole fraction of adsorbate in the flow stream, the relative pressure is given by... 

Vapor Pressure Osmometry. VPO is a very practical method for determining Mn values in a wide range of solvents and temperatures. Recently, results obtained with classical pendant-drop instruments showed a significant dependence of the calibration constant upon the molecular weight of the standards (8,9). On the other hand, with an apparatus equipped with thermistors allowing the volume of the drops to be kept constant, this anomaly is not observed (10,11). 

The variables that need to be controlled in chemical processing are temperature, pressure, liquid level, flow rate, flow ratio, composition, and certain physical properties whose magnitudes may be influenced by some of the other variables, for instance, viscosity, vapor pressure, refractive index, etc. When the temperature and pressure are fixed, such properties are measures of composition which may be known exactly upon calibration. Examples of control... 

Water activity (aw) is the ratio of the partial vapor pressure of water above a solution to that of pure water at the same specific temperature. It plays an important role in evaluating the microbial, chemical, and physical stability of foods during storage and processing. The vapor pressure in the headspace of a food sample can be measured directly by a manometer. A manometer has one or two transparent tubes and two liquid surfaces where pressure applied to the surface of one tube causes an elevation of the liquid surface in the other tube. The amount of elevation is read from a scale that is usually calibrated to read directly in pressure units. Makower and Myers (1943) were the first to use this method to measure vapor pressure exerted by food. Later, the method was improved, in terms of design features of the apparatus, by various scientists (Taylor, 1961 Labuza et al., 1972 Lewicki, 1987). Trailer (1983), Lewicki (1989), and Zanoni et al. (1999) used a capacitance manometer instead of a U-tube manometer for the measurement of vapor pressure. Lewicki et al. (1978) showed that the precision and reproducibility of the method can be improved by the simultaneous measurement of the water vapor pressure and temperature of the food sample. The method is reviewed in detail by Rizvi (1995) and Rahman (1995). 

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