Brief Historical Introduction

In the following sections and before we describe the synthesis of zaragozic acid A, we give a brief historical introduction to the dihydroxylation reaction, then describe the development of the Sharpless AD and some of its recent applications. 

The preceding quotation serves admirably as a brief historical introduction to x-ray diffraction. This field of research has proved enormously fruitful in yielding information about crystal structure, and in providing a means of obtaining monochromatic x-rays and of measuring their wavelength. The determination of crystal structure, though important to analytical chemistry, is outside the scope of this book.31... 

In this first chapter, we will outline the scope of this book on the kinetics of chemical processes in the solid state. They are often different from the kinetics of processes in fluids because of structural constraints. After a brief historical introduction, typical situations of non-equilibrium crystals will be described. These will illustrate some basic concepts and our approach to understanding solid state kinetics. 

In the last two decades, important discoveries in the field of superconductivity [1] have reopened the question of what is the symmetry of the superconducting state. In this contribution, after a brief historical introduction, the classification of superconducting states will be reviewed. Some consequences of the symmetry of the state will be then discussed, especially in view of the recent interest in the symmetry of high-7) superconductors. Finally, a novel approach particularly useful for mixed symmetry states will be introduced. 

This article reviews the current understanding of the supernova explosions. After a brief historical introduction the two main classes of supemovae are described starting from the classification scheme currently employed. The different energy inputs for supemovae are presented. Despite their rather different energy sources supernovae from different types reach very similar luminosities. A notable exception to this are the Gamma-Ray Bursts, which are several orders of magnitude more energetic. The characteristics of each supernova type are presented. 

This brief historical introduction is intended to give a simplified overview of some of the critical milestones of NMR mainly in chemical applications, excluding the innovations in the held of proteins, solid state, and magnetic resonance in clinical medicine. To hnd out more details, see the articles written by Emsley and Feeney [23], Shoolery [24], and Freeman [25], and their included references. 

Abstract Brief historic introduction precedes presentation of main types of transducers used in sensors including electrochemical, optical, mass sensitive, and thermal devices. Review of chemical sensors includes various types of gas sensitive devices, potentiometric and amperometric sensors, and quartz microbalance applications. Mechanisms of biorecognition employed in biosensors are reviewed with the method of immobilization used. Some examples of biomimetic sensors are also presented. 

The second section. Perspective Macro- and Microinteractions of Water and Polymers, consists of three chapters. It covers a brief historical introduction leading to an insight into selected aspects of current thought on interactions of water with model solutes and proteins [4], consideration of water-polymer and ice-polymer interfacial regions [5], and examination of stages in the process of protein hydration assessed by a variety of types of measurements [6]. 

Treatment of ICPAES from different perspectives and to varying degrees of comprehensiveness appears in a number of chapters in volumes not solely dedicated to ICP-AES, but treating spectrometry and analysis in general. An early excellent chapter on ICP-AES is by Tschopel (1979) on plasma excitation in spectrochemical analysis, in Wilson and Wilson s Comprehensive Analytical Chemistry. A very brief historical introduction to ICP-AES, basic principles and considerations of absorption and emission lines, and applications to food analysis is in a book on modern food analysis (Ihnat (1984), and Van Loon (1985), in his practical analyst-oriented book on selected methods of trace analysis biological and environmental samples includes a chapter (pp. 19-52) on techniques and instrumentation including ICPAES. Moore (1989) (Introduction to Inductively Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission Spectrometry) provides... 

The acquisition and analysis of metal-ligand bond energy information in organometallic molecules represents an active and important research area in modern chemistry. This overview begins with a brief historical introduction to the subject, followed by a discussion of basic principles, experimental methodology, and issues, and concludes with an overview of the Symposium Series volume organization and contents. 

This review is an overview on the recent literature on 1,2,4-oxadiazole s chemistry and its major advances since the last reviews on this topic (2008MI243, 2009OBC4337). After a brief historical introduction and a general presentation of the main features of this heterocycle, modem synthetic methodologies will be presented together with recent mechanistic interpretations of 1,2,4-oxadiazoles thermal and photochemical reactivity. As for appHcations, the main fields of Hfe sciences and materials chemistry have been considered. A commentary on future prospects adds suggestions for further developments of 1,2,4-oxadiazole heterocycles. 

After a brief historical introduction and the distinction between hydrolysable and condensed tannins, a description of their chemistry and a short historical review on their use in leather tanning, the more recent developments in tannins for adhesives with and without the use of any aldehyde-yielding compounds, even without the use of any hardeners, are described. Examples of the use of tannins for other industrial, nonleather, applications are reported. In particular, this chapter focuses briefly on their new intended use in the medical and pharmaceutical fields. New data on their antiviral effectiveness against a great number of different viruses compared to their higher, lower or absent cytotoxicity are also presented. 

In this paper we present, after a brief historical introduction, a discussion of the nature of the specific forces between antigen and antibody and of the precipitation reaction from the point of view of modem chemistry. Only the simpler aspects of the phenomena are discussed such complicating factors as the roles of complement, lipids, etc., in the reactions are disregarded in our discussion. 

Chapter 1 of the first volume of this series of Speeiahst Periodical Reports was entitled Eleetric Multipoles, Polarizabilities and Hyperpolarizabilities . A brief overview of the period up to 1998 was given, followed by the review of 1998-1999. Magnetic effects were not included. In the present article the aim is to provide the same kind of brief historical introduction to magnetic effects and then to review the literature on both electric field and magnetic field response fimctions for the period June 1999-May 2001. 

After this brief historical introduction, the sorbents that are commonly used today in thin-layer chromatography will be characterized in terms of their physical and chemical parameters as well as by their resulting chromatographic properties in the following sections. 

However, in order that the reader shall not lose sight of our ultimate objective, we present here a brief historical introduction showing how our understanding of light and matter has developed since the end of the nineteenth century. It is hoped that this will allow the student to set the material which follows in the proper context and will give him or her an appreciation of the beauty and fascination of the field of optical physics. 

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