Brain interleukin-11 and

Greist JH, Jenike MA, Robinson DS, et al Efficacy of fluvoxamine in obsessive-compulsive disorder results of a multicentre, double-bhnd, placebo-controlled trial. European Journal of Clinical Research 7 195-204, 1995c Griffin WST, Stanley LC, Ling C, et al Brain interleukin 1 and S-100 immunoreactivity are elevated in Down syndrome and Alzheimer disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 86 7611-7615, 1989... 

Griffin WS, Stanley EC, Ling C, Wliite L, MacLeod V, Perrot LJ, Wliite CL, 3rd, Ar aoz C (1989) Brain interleukin 1 and S-100 immunoreacti vity ar e ele vated in Down syndr ome and Alzheimer disease. ProcNatl Acad Sci USA 86 7611-7615. 

Hetier E, Ayala J, Bousseau A, Prochiantz A (1991) Modulation of interleukin-1 and tumor necrosis factor expression by beta-adrenergic agonists in mouse ameboid microglial cells. Exp. Brain Res. 86 407-413. 

Tumour necrosis factor-a (TNFa) accumulates in the brain after trauma. This cytokine is known to be an important factor in delayed CNS damage. It was found that, in addition to its anti-NMDA effect, HU-211 causes up to 90% inhibition of the TNFa surge after closed head injury in rats [195], Bacterial and viral infections of the CNS are known to cause secretion of the TNFa as well as interleukin-1 and other cytokines which are involved in the inflammatory process and may cause secondary damage. Such infections may result in high mortality. It was found that rats infected with Streptococcus pneumoniae suffered less cerebral oedema on treatment with a combination of a suitable antibiotic with HU-211 than the antibiotic alone [196],... 

Woodroofe MN, Sarna GS, Wadhwa M, Hayes GM, Loughlin AJ, Tinker A, Cuzner ML (1991) Detection of interleukin-1 and interleukin-6 in adult rat brain, following mechanical injury, by in vivo microdialysis Evidence of a role for microglia in cytokine production. J Neuroimmunol 33 227-236. 

Fabry Z, Fitzsimmons KM, Herleiri JA, Moninger TO, Dobbs MB, Hart MN (1993) Producdori of the cytokines interleukin 1 and 6 by murure brain microvessel endothelium and smooth muscle pericytes. J Neuroimmunol 47 23—34. 

N. J. Rothwell, and J. K. Relton, Involvement of Interleukin-1 and Lipocortin-1 in Ischemic Brain Damage, Cerebrovascular Brain Metabolism Review, 5 (1993) 178-198. 

Merrill, J. E., Tumor necrosis factor alpha, interleukin 1 and related cytokines in brain development normal and pathological, Dev. Neurosci., 14, 1, 1992. 

McCoU, B. W., Rothwell, N. J. and Allan, S. M. Systemic inflammatory stimulus potentiates the acute phase and CXC chemokine responses to experimental stroke and exacerbates brain damage via interleukin-1- and neutrophil-dependent mechanisms. J Neurosci 27 (2007) 4403 412. 

Biber K, Zuurman MW, Dijkstra IM, Boddeke HW (2002) Chemokines in the brain neuroimmunology and beyond. Curr Opin Pharmacol 2 63-68 Blasko 1, Veerhuis R, Stampfer-Kountchev M, Saurwein-Teissl M, Eikelenboom P, Grubeck-Loebenstein B (2000) Costimulatory effects of interferon-gamma and interleukin-1 beta or tumor necrosis factor alpha on the synthesis of Abetal-40 and Abetal-42 by human astrocytes. Neurobiol Dis 7 682-689... 

Gendelman HE, Persidsky Y (2005) Infections of the nervous system. Lancet Neurol 4 12-13 Gerard C, Rollins BJ (2001) Chemokines and disease. Nat Immunol 2 108-115 Gitter BD, Cox LM, Rydel RE, May PC (1995) Amyloid beta peptide potentiates cytokine secretion by interleukin-1 beta-activated human astrocytoma cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 92 10738-10741 GiuUan D, Yu J, Li X, Tom D, Li J, Wendt E, Lin SN, Schwarcz R, Noonan C (1996) Study of receptor-mediated neurotoxins released by HIV-1-infected mononuclear phagocytes found in human brain. J Neurosci 16 3139-3153... 

Koka P, He K, Zack JA, Kitchen S, Peacock W, Fried 1, Tran T, Yashar SS, MerrUl JE (1995) Human immunodeficiency virus 1 envelope proteins induce interleukin 1, tumor necrosis factor alpha, and nitric oxide in glial cultures derived from fetal, neonatal, and adult human brain. J Exp Med 182 941-951... 

Relton, J.K. and Rothwell, N.J. (1992). Interleukin-1 receptor antagonist inhibits ischaemic and excitotoxic neuronal damr e in the rat. Brain Res. Bull. 29, 243-246. 

Interleukin-1 (IL-1) produced by monocytes and several other cell types [70, 146] has a wide array of biological properties, including T cell activation and inflammatory interactions with muscle, liver, fibroblasts, brain and bone [70, 146], IL-1, both natural and recombinant, has been shown to release histamine from human basophils and from human adenoidal mast cells [70,146,151] and this release was abolished by an IL-1 antibody. However, the average release produced by 10 units of IL-1 was less than 20% and there was considerable variability between populations of basophils in the extent of histamine release. Moreover, the secretory response elicited was quite slow (within 15 min) compared with that of other peptides [151]. Desensitization of the basophils by anti-IgE serum had no effect on the subsequent IL-1 response, suggesting different mechanisms of action [ 151], as has been the case with other peptides. Interestingly, the portion of the IL-1 molecule that is responsible for its immu-nostimulatory activity appears to be separate from that portion responsible for its proinflammatory effects [152]. However, that portion of the molecule responsible for eliciting basophil and mast-cell histamine release has not as yet been defined. 

While the specific mechanisms of action of interferon-pia and interferon-pib in MS are not fully understood, each interferon has a number of immune-mediating activities (see Section 7.1). A recent review article on multiple sclerosis observed The interferons reduce the proliferation of T cells and the production of tumor necrosis factor a, decrease antigen presentation, alter cytokine production to favor ones governed by type 2 helper T (Th2) cells, increase the secretion of interleukin-10, and reduce the passage of immune cells across the blood-brain barrier by means of their effects on adhesion molecules, chemokines, and proteases [2]. 

Injections of KA also induce the expression of mRNA for cytokines such as interleukin-1/3 (IL-1/5), interleukin-6, tumor necrosis factor (TlMF-a), and leukemia inhibitory factor in different regions of rat brain (Minami et al., 1991 Yabuuchi et al., 1993). Cytokines play important roles not only in neurodegeneration, but also... 

Eriksson C., Winblad B., and Schultzberg M. (1998). Kainic acid-induced expression of interleukin-1 receptor antagonist mRNA in the rat brain. Brain Res. Mol. Brain Res. 58 195-208. 

Taishi P, Bredow S, Guha-Thakurta N, Obal F Jr, Krueger JM. Diurnal variations of interleukin-1 beta mRNA and beta-actin mRNA in rat brain. J Neuroimmunol 1997 75 69-74. 

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