Blood whole human

Distribution. Lead in blood partitions between plasma and red blood cells, with the larger fraction (90-99%) associated with red blood cells (Cake et al. 1996 DeSilva 1981 Everson and Patterson 1980 Manton and Cook 1984 Ong and Lee 1980a). Lead in plasma binds to albumin and y -globulins (Ong and Lee 1980a). The fraction that is not bound to protein exists largely as complexes with low molecular weight sulfhydryl compounds these may include cysteine, homocysteine, and cysteamine (Al-Modhefer et al. 1991). Approximately 75% was bound to protein when whole human blood was incubated with 50 ig/dL lead (as lead chloride) approximately 90% of the bound lead was associated with albumin (Ong and Lee 1980a). However, the fraction of lead in plasma bound to protein would be expected to vary with the plasma lead concentration. 

MRC has evaluated the effect of fatigue testing of candidate cardiovascular materials in human blood versus fatigue testing in air and saline - all at 37°C (Figures 5 and 6). Whole human blood was chosen as one of the mediums for testing at 37°C, in spite of the difficulties associated with this testing. 

Probably the most effective use of XRF and TXRF continues to be in the analysis of samples of biological origin. For instance, TXRF has been used without a significant amount of sample preparation to determine the metal cofactors in enzyme complexes [86]. The protein content in a number of enzymes has been deduced through a TXRF of the sulfur content of the component methionine and cysteine [87]. It was found that for enzymes with low molecular weights and minor amounts of buffer components that a reliable determination of sulfur was possible. In other works, TXRF was used to determine trace elements in serum and homogenized brain samples [88], selenium and other trace elements in serum and urine [89], lead in whole human blood [90], and the Zn/Cu ratio in serum as a means to aid cancer diagnosis [91]. 

Huang etal. (2002) prepared an antibody array for the simultaneous detection of 43 cytokines. They were able to verify the down-regulation of MCP-1 cytokine in transfected cells (human glioblastoma cells transfected with cx43 expression vector) relative to control cells. The antibody array is an emerging technology. In at least one study based upon the use of a commercial membrane format, the cytokine microarray failed to accurately determine cytokine levels in bacterial and lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimu-lated whole human blood (Copeland, 2004). 

The principal reason that DMT must be administer parenterally is its rapid and efficient metabolism. It can be oxidized to the N-oxide. It can be cyclized to b-carbolines, both with and without an N-methyl group. It can be N-dealkylated to form NMT and simple tryptamine itself. Best known is its oxidative destruction, by the monoamine oxidase system, to the inactive indoleacetic acid. There is a wild biochemical conversion process known for tryptophan that involves an enzymatic conversion to kynurenine by the removal of the indole-2-carbon. A similar product, N,N-dimethylkynuramine or DMK, has been seen with DMT, when it was added to whole human blood in vitro. 

Fig. 12.17 Inhibition of phosphorylation of p38 MAP kinase in neutrophils (a, flow cytometry) and cytokine production (c-e, flow-cytometric bead array) in whole human blood stimulated with 100 ng/mL LPS, with either DS-96 or PMB (b) Forward scatter/side scatter profile and the gating for p38 MAPK-negative and positive gates obtained on unstimulated (negative control) and LPS-stimulated (positive control) cells, respectively...

Pig blood (if you do not have access to blood from this source, out of date whole human blood from a blood bank can also be used)... 

For practical purposes (individual and interindividual variation), determination of individual norm activity is recommended (this approach is better than that of calculating the decrease from an average value) as well as separate determination of cholinesterases, the red blood cell AChE and plasma BuChE. The activity determined in the whole human blood corresponds to about 10% of BuChE and 90% of AChE. This is different to rats where this ratio is 29% of BuChE and 71% of AChE (Bajgar, 1972). Erythrocyte AChE activity seems to be more useful for these purposes than BuChE activity in plasma. 

A recent advancement is to use intact hepatocytes suspended in whole human plasma for inhibition studies to allow correction for plasma protein binding.27 As drugs in vivo are always in contact with 100 percent human blood, this is conceptually sound and therefore deserves further investigation on its general applicability. One disturbing finding in our laboratory is that testosterone, a compound that is readily metabolized in vivo, is not metabolized by intact human hepatocytes in whole plasma (A. P. Li, unpublished). 

Blood products, which include whole human blood for use in transfusion as well as blood-derived products such as clotting factors, proteins, etc. The term baemovigilance is used to describe the surveillance procedures adopted to monitor serious adverse or unexpected events related to products derived from blood. 

The measurements of pharmacokinetic parameters can lead to numerous misinterpretations. Thus, pivampicillin has a half-life of 103 min in a buffered aqueous solution at 37°C, but it falls to less than Imin after addition of only 1% of mouse or rat serum. In the presence of human serum (10%), however, it is 50min, whereas in whole human blood it is only 5 min. These results exemplify the care required to avoid incorrect conclusions. In addition, when a prodrug and the parent molecule are compared, one must take into account the differences in their respective time courses of action. The maximum activity can appear later for the prodrug than for the parent compound, and often the comparison of the area under the curve could constitute a better criterion. 

Using an enzymatic technique, Keller and Denz (K6) have recently found a level of 0.38 mg% in whole human blood. 

VanDelinder, V. and Groisman, A. (2006) Separation of plasma from whole human blood in a continuous cross-flow in a molded microfluidic device. Anal Chem, 78 (11), 3765-3771. 

Sypniewski, S. Bald, E. Determination of captopril and its disulphides in whole human blood and urine by high-performance liquid chromatography with ultraviolet detection and precolumn derivatization. J.Chromatogr.A, 1996, 729, 335-340... 

Several polymers were evaluated in the form of a surface coating on glass beads packed in columns to determine their ability to retain platelets when whole human blood passes over the surface. This ability was measured as the platelet retention index p, the fraction of platelets retained on the column. Lowest values of p were found for poly(ethylene oxide), polypropylene oxide), poly(tetramethylene oxide) (in the form of polyurethanes), and polydimethylsiloxane. Highest values (around 0.8) were found for cross-linked poly(vinyl alcohol) and the copolymers of ethylenediamine with diisocyanates. Intermediate values were found for polystyrene and its copolymers with methyl acrylate, for polyacrylate, and for poly(methyl methacrylate). The results are interpreted in terms of possible hydrophobic and hydrogen bonding interactions with plasma proteins. 

Recent studies with modern analytical techniques have shown much lower values for human body fluids. The mean zirconium concentration in whole human blood was found to be 9.6 5.8 pg L in the UK Master Mix (a collection of blood samples from humans in the UK), and 19.7 8 pg L for the mean value of individual blood samples (98 subjects). These values are in fair agreement with an estimate of 5.0 pg L in Italian blood samples. Here, the Zr concentration was derived on the basis of the measured concentration of hafnium, under the assumption of a Zr/Hf ratio of about 40, as found in soils and rocks. Morita etal. (1994), using ICP-MS, found a mean human serum Zr concentration of... 

---