Biomarker earthworm

Spurgeon, D. J., Svendsen, C., Rimmer, V. R., Hopkin, S. P. and Weeks, J. M. (2000). Relative sensitivity of life cycle and biomarker responses in four earthworm species exposed to zinc, Environ. Toxicol. Chem., 19, 1800-1808. 

Metabolomics has made remarkable inroads into the environmental research community. Here, a major emphasis is to understand the impact that environmental stress, such as pollution and climate change, has on wildlife. Indeed, many government organizations monitor the prevalence of pollutants in certain species of wildlife as indicators of the exposure risk within the environment. Studies of Japanese medaka have been conducted to investigate the effects of trichloroethylene, a common environmental pollutant, and the pesticide dinoseb, on the development of fish embryos (44, 45). Similarly, cadmium toxicity has been examined in the bank vole and rat and has revealed changes in lipid metabolism that preceded classical nephrotoxicity (46, 47). Another study investigated the effects of environmental toxins on earthworms (48). In particular, the analysis of earthworm tissue extracts by NMR spectroscopy identified maltose as a potential biomarker for ecotoxicity within a metal-contaminated site. 

Immune systems are responsible for providing organisms with the ability to resist infections from various sources. It is well known that interactions of environmental chemicals with the immune system can both suppress and enhance immune activity (Luster et al., 1988). This means that immune responses have potential as biomarkers of chemical exposure and effect. To date, immune system studies in terrestrial ecosystems have concentrated on earthworms. This is because the immunobiology of this group is well researched and understood. Activities or competencies of the cellular immune system have been measured through a range of parameters, such as ... 

Glutathione S-transferase (GST). The induction and activities of GST, like the phase 1 enzymes above, have been measured as a potential biomarker of exposure to organic contaminants. In earthworms, Stokke and Stenersen (1993) found no increase of GST in E. andrei following exposure to three classic inducers (trans-stilbene oxide, 3-methylcholanthrene and l,4-bis[2(3,5-dichloropyridoxyl)]ben-zene) for 3 days, a result confirmed by Borgeraas et al. (1996) for both E. andrei and Eisenia veneta. In contrast, Hans et al. (1993) found induction of GST in another earthworm Pheretima posthuma following exposure to aldrin, endosul-phan and lindane. However, this induction was transient, which may explain some... 

The utility of antioxidants in terrestrial animals has received relatively little attention so far. In earthworms, inhibition of CAT and glutathione peroxidase but not SOD have been demonstrated in E.fetida exposed to lead and uranium (Labrot et al., 1996). However, SOD and CAT activity were not induced in E. veneta and E.fetida exposed to Zn, Cu and Hg and the herbicide paraquat (Honsi et al., 1999). Antioxidant enzyme measurement therefore cannot be considered a reliable biomarker of exposure in soil invertebrates. 

In a detailed analysis of earthworm metallothioneins, Stiirzenbaum et al. (1998c) identified two complementary DNAs (cDNAs) encoding metallothio-nein-like proteins. Both isoforms were induced by copper and cadmium and also a number of mine site soils. This work for both snails and earthworms confirms that metallothioneins are inducible by metal exposure and are thus useful biomarkers of exposure. 

Accepting that the absence of an international guideline should not be a barrier to the use of developing methods, further useful methods can be identified. Some, such as the bait lamina (Tome, 1990a) and earthworm lysosomal membrane stability assay (Weeks and Svendsen, 1996), are now well established in the scientific literature and appear particularly suited to assessing exposure and effects. Some of the biomarker techniques, such as ChE inhibition, metallothio-nein induction and possibly immune function assessment, can be used to provide valuable information regarding the nature of the chemicals present and the exposure of soil species. 

Cikutovic, M.A., Fitzpatrick, L.C., Goven, A.J., Venables, B.J., Giggleman, M.A. and Cooper, E.L. (1999) Wound healing in earthworms Lumbricus terrestris a cellular-based biomarker for assessing sublethal chemical toxicity. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 62, 508-514. 

Gibb, J.O.T., Svendsen, C., Weeks, J.M. and Nicholson, J.K. (1997b) H-l NMR spectroscopic investigations of tissue metabolite biomarker response to Cu(II) exposure in terrestrial invertebrates identification of free histidine as a novel biomarker of exposure to copper in earthworms. Biomarkers, 2, 295-302. 

Robidoux, P.Y., Svendsen, C., Sarrazin, M., Hawaii, J., Thiboutot, S., Ampleman, G., Weeks, J.M. and Sunahara, G.I. (2002) Evaluation of tissue and cellular biomarkers to assess 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) exposure in earthworms effects-based assessment in laboratory studies using Eisenia andrei. Biomarkers, 7, 306-321. 

Stiirzenbaum, S.R., Kille, P. and Morgan, A.J. (1998b) Identification of new heavy-metal-responsive biomarker in the earthworm. In Advances in Earthworm Ecotoxicology, Sheppard, S.C., Bembridge, J.D., Holmstmp, M. and Posthuma, L. (eds), pp. 215-224. SETAC, Pensacola, EL. 

Svendsen, C. (2000) Earthworm biomarkers in terrestrial ecosystems. PhD Thesis, University of Reading, UK. 

Svendsen, C., Meharg, A.A., Freestone, P. and Weeks, J.M. (1996) Use of an earthworm lysosomal biomarker for the ecological assessment of pollution from an industrial plastics... 

Svendsen, C. and Weeks, J.M. (1997) Relevance and applicability of a simple earthworm biomarker of copper exposure 1. Links to ecological effects in a laboratory study with Eisenia andrei. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 36, 72-79. 

Weeks, J.M. and Svendsen, C. (1996) Neutral red retention by lysosomes from earthworm (Lumbricus rubellus) coelomocytes a simple biomarker of exposure to soil copper. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 15, 1801-1805. 

Warne, M.A. Lenz, E.M. Osborn, D. Weeks, J.M. Nicholson, J.K. An NMR-based metabonomic investigation of the toxic effects of 3-trifluoromethyl-aniline on the earthworm Eisenia veneta, Biomarkers 5(1), 56-72 (2000). 

Robidoux PY et al., Evaluation of tissue and cellular biomarkers to assess 2,4,6-trinitroluene (TNT) exposure in earthworms Effects-based assessment in laboratory studies using Eisenia andrei, Biomarkers 7, 306, 2002. 

Soil toxicity-based concentrations of explosive can be used as criteria for risk [55] or soil screening assessment [56], However, as stated earlier, soil concentrations may be a poor reflection of exposure and environmental risks because the bioavailability of energetics can be affected by soil characteristics and environmental conditions [52], Body residues can be a better indicator of exposure to explosives, especially for the earthworms that are actively moving in soil organisms compared to plants. For example, tissue concentrations of TNT metabolites in earthworms might be used as a biomarker of exposure to TNT [57,58],... 

Environment Agency, Biological Stress Indicators of Contaminated Land Ecological Assessment of Contaminated Land Using Earthworm Biomarkers, Environment Agency, Bristol, 1999. 

Bnndy J G, Lenz E M, Bailey N J, et al. (2002). Metabonomic investigation into the toxicity of 4-flnoroaniline, 3,5-diflnoroaniline and 2-flnoro-4-methylaniline to the earthworm Eisenia veneta (Rosa) Identification of novel endogenous biomarkers. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 21 1966-1972. 

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