Behavioral responses snake

Experimental data suggest that VN stimuli might also play a relevant role in prey-predator interactions by mediating affective responses to prey or predator chemical cues. For instance, one of the preferred prey for the snake Thamnophis sirtalis is earthworms. Halpern (1988) demonstrated that earthworm wash constitutes a VN stimulus that is rewarding for these snakes. On the other hand, it has been shown that rats display defensive reactions to a collar that has been worn by a cat, even if they have no previous experience with cats. For these defensive behavioral responses to occur, direct contact with the collar is needed (Dielenberg and McGregor 2001). 

It is well known that the chemical senses play a critical role in the behavior of snakes (Halpern, 1987, 1992 Mason 1992 and Schwenk 1995). Tongue-flicking, a chemosensory behavior pattern unique to snakes and lizards (Gove 1979 Schwenk 1993), serves as the primary vehicle for transfer of chemical substances to the vomeronasal organ (Burghardt and Pruitt 1975 Graves and Halpern 1989 Halpern and Kubie 1980 Kahmann 1932 Wilde 1938). Snakes have well-developed vomeronasal systems and flick their tongues in response to odorants perceived in their environment. 

Thoen, C., Bauwen, D., and Verheyen, R. F. (1986). Chemoreceptive and behavioral responses of the common lizard, Lacerta vivipara, to snake chemical deposits. Animal Behaviour 34,1805-1813. 

Tongne flicking behavior of snakes in response to odors from small mammals Effects of bait type and location on trapping success with deer mice Food choices of Norway rats Tadpole behavior in the presence of predatory fish... 

Mason, R.T., Jones, T.H., Pales, H.M., Pannell, L.K. Crews, D. 1990. Characterization, synthesis, and behavioral responses to sex attractiveness pheromones of red-sided garter snakes Thamnophis sirtalis pane-talis). J. Chem. EcoL, 16, 2353—2369. 

Although the database from experimental studies of pheromone trailing behavior in snakes is small, it is apparent from this review that such work is quite valuable in evaluating the role of olfaction in snake sociobiology. Trailing activity can be used as an easily quantified visual bioassay of chemosensory input relating to the various social responses of snakes. In addition, aspects of this activity may be useful in other disciplines of herpetology (i.e., evolution and taxonomy). 

In garter snakes Thamnophis sirtalis) a VNO-mediated stimulus can reinforce behavior dried earthworm wash or earthworm bits can be used to reward correct performance in a conditioned response to an arbitrary stimulus, such as dots versus stripes in a Y-maze (Halpern etal., 1985). In red-eared turtles the VNO is considered to involve aqueous chemoreception in water. Salt solutions and soluble vapor substances generated activity in the accessory olfactory bulb (Hatanaka and Hanada, 1987). 

We tested the effects of cloacal secretions that had been aged in a sealed vial on brown tree snakes. Our bioassay measured changes in locomotion, avoidance behavior and the expression of defensive behaviors in response to touch stimuli. A blank control, freshly collected cloacal secretions and aged cloacal secretions were the stimuli used in the study. An applied aim of this study was to investigate chemical cues that might be of use in controlling the brown tree snake in its introduced habitat (Mason and Greene,... 

The vomeronasal system is necessary in mediating a variety of reproductive behaviors-behaviors which are clearly sexually dimorphic. A male garter snake, for example, requires an intact vomeronasal system to court a female (Kubie et al., 1978). Female mice undergo several effects in response to pheromones of male conspecifics, including induction of estrus, estrus synchrony (in group-housed females), and pregnancy... 

We examined the laboratory responses of red-backed salamanders to two predator diet treatments at two different time periods to determine whether the chemical label that identifies individual garter snakes as an elevated risk is conserved within the Plethodontidae, and to examine a possible temporal shift in red-backed salamander antipredator behavior. The early trials were conducted between 2100 and 2230 hours, and the late trials were conducted between 2330 and 0100 hours. In each of these trial periods, test salamanders were given the choice between T. sirtalis fed P. cinerem (TSp ) or E. bislineata (TSEb) versus distilled water. To assess the relative strength of each snake diet treatment, test salamanders also were given the choice between TSpc and TS. ... 

Red-backed salamanders Plethodon cinereus) respond to distilled water rinses of garter snakes (Thamnophis sirtalis) that have recently attacked other red-backed salamanders (Madison et al., 2002). These anti-predator behaviors consist of avoidance (Madison et al., 1999a Mcdarby et al., 1999) and altered activity (Madison et al., 1999a), and have been documented in the laboratory and in the field (Sullivan et al., 2002). The responses persist for up to 36 hours in laboratory trials, but no longer than 3 hours in the field (Sullivan et al., 2002). Whether the attenuated response in the field is due to a diminishing of the cue or to field-based shifts in salamander behavior remains unclear. 

Burghardt, 1980 Heller and Halpern, 1981, 1982a,b Ford, this volume). There is also evidence that neonatal snakes of a variety of species aggregate in response to chemical cues (Scudder et al., 1980 Brown and MacLean, 1983 Burghardt, 1983). Such aggregation capabilities suggest that similar orientation and approach behaviors could be employed for den location if conspecific odors were deposited near or around dens. 

To determine whether viviparous lizards (L. vivipara) show innate responses to chemical cues from predatory snakes from birth, or learn them through experience, the preceding experiments were duplicated (Van Damme et al. 1995). Seventeen juvenile common lizards (L. vivipara) were exposed to a clean cage or to a cage that had previously housed the lizard-eating adder V. berus) or smooth snake (C. austriaca). Juveniles that had never been exposed to predator chemical cues before behaved like the animals used in the previous study by Thoen et al. (1986). One difference in the behavior of juvenile and adult lizards... 

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