Bases concept creation

So far, the emphasis has been on concept creation, roughly following the route of history. This brings us to around the eighteenth century. French chemist Nicolas Lemery (1645-1715) was born in Rouen and was one of the first scientists to develop theories on acid-base chemistry. By a theory, I mean a causal explanation that makes sense of all, or as much as possible, of the data that has been collected to date. The theory should be able to predict new information that can be collected and tested for compatibility. Earlier in this chapter I called this fertility . A theory of acidity should ej lain why all the members of the class of acids behave as they do and why the nonmembers do not. When chemists construct a theory, they may find that minor alterations are required. This is called accommodation and is felt to be natural in the development of a theory. If, however, there comes a point where accommodation cannot explain a large portion of the new evidence, a new explanation is created. This is called a paradigm shift and the topic of acidity offers examples of it that will be explored later. 

The system of induced synthesis of/ -galactosidase has served as basic model for years of research in several laboratories studying the mechanisms of this synthesis. The most widely known studies are those of Jacob and Monod, resulting in the creation of an experimentally based concept of regulation of genetic activity, which we shall describe briefly on the basis of the publications summarizing their conclusions (Jacob and Monod, 1963, 1964). 

Unlike the common practice occurring in other countries, in which award of patent rights is based on the date on which a patent apphcation is filed, in the United States the patent grant is based on the first date of invention. To be an inventor in the United States, an individual must contribute to conception of the invention, and may contribute to reduction of the invention to practice. Although the creation of an advance, development, or apphcation may be conceived by one given individual, it often is the case that the act of invention is the work of many individuals, especially in a commercial context. Accordingly, inventorship questions often arise. 

The connection between the optical properties and technological applications of macromolecules has been a subject of intense research and development for many years [1-5]. There is presently an emphasis on using materials and molecular architectures based on a very small size scale of less than 100s of nanometers [6-10], Revolutionary ideas and concepts have emerged which may lead to the creation of superior miniature size materials for a variety of applications. Some of these concepts are directed at synthetic schemes to recreate... 

NE OF THE CENTRAL THEMES of this book is to show how the development of the concept of neutral salt in the eighteenth century made possible the creation of a compositional nomenclature by L.-B. Guyton de Morveau in 1782, which when adapted to the new chemistry of Lavoisier led to the creation of a definition of simple body the material element. The second major theme then describes how this new chemistry led to the final development of modern chemical composition in its atomic structure introduced by John Dalton. His atomic theory contained the symbolic operators that furnished the most convenient representation of the material composition of bodies that had become available by the end of the eighteenth century. The idea of an individual atomic weight unique to each element depended most immediately upon the concept of simple body, introduced by the authors of the M thode de nomenclature chimique in 1787. The new nomenclature was itself based on the principle that a name of a body ought to correspond to its composition. 

The conservation laws are often based on a rather simple and intuitive concept. They state the rate of accumulation of an extensive property of a system is equal to the net (incoming minus outgoing) transport rate of the property across the surfaces that bound the system plus the net (creation minus destruction) rate of internal generation of the property... 

Molecular-level design of catalytic ensemble structures on surfaces in a controllable manner, based on new chemical concepts and strategies regarding composition or structure, provides a promising opportunity for the development of novel and efficient catalysts active for selective oxidation. Novel strategies and concepts for the creation of active ensemble structures on flat and porous surfaces may emerge from self-assembly and in situ transformation of precursors immobilized on the surfaces, with the aid of in situ characterization by sophisticated physical techniques [1-6]. 

Molecular recognition, defined as the favored binding of a molecule (i.e., a substrate) to a specific site in a receptor over other structurally and chemically related molecules, is at the forefront of science.1 s Long before man walked on this earth, nature had succeeded in the creation of a series of biologically based recognition elements with unmatched specificity antibodies, enzymes, and receptors. Perhaps the simplest well-known example of this concept is the lock and key hypothesis that has been used to describe protein-substrate interactions in biological systems.5-7... 

For creation of more adequate models more detailed description of individuals development and reproduction based on conceptions of biology of development is necessary. 

Alchemy The study and manipulation of matter based on a belief that matter can be transformed from one form to another by physical, spiritual or magical processes, or a combination of such processes. Although alchemical ideas extend back to at least 5000 b.c.e and existed in all civilizations, there was a great expansion of alchemical activities between 800 and 1600 c.E. after which time alchemical ideas were gradual replaced with empirical concepts of matter. Alchemy was often directed toward the making of gold from base metals or the creation of an elixir of life that gave immortality. 

In order to improve creation efficiency, flavourists use a building block concept to create savoury flavours, a combination of base, middle and top notes ... 

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