Base of crude oil

Characterization of Crude Oils According to Dominant Characteristics Based on Overall Physical Properties... 

Characterization of Crude Oils and Petroleum Fractions Based on Structural Analysis... 

During loading and unloading of crude oil tankers, the specific gravity of the crude is measured to confirm it meets the specifications for the case where payment is made on a barrel basis, or when the volume is converted into weight if the transaction is based on a price per ton (Hayward et al., 1980). 

There are a total of eighteen different hydrocarbon series, of which the most common constituents of crude oil have been presented - the alkanes, cycloalkanes, and the arenes. The more recent classifications of hydrocarbons are based on a division of the hydrocarbons in three main groups alkanes, naphthanes and aromatics, along with the organic compounds containing the non-hydrocarbon atoms of sulphur, nitrogen and oxygen. 

The separation processes separate the constituents of crude-oil based on physical proper Conversion of one molecule into another greatly extends the usefulness of petroleum by extending [hi ige of hydrocarbon products. 

Distillation is probably Ihe most widely used separation (mass transfer) process in the chemical and allied industries. Its applications range from the rectification of alcohol, which has been practiced since antiquity, lo the fractionation of crude oil. The separation of liquid mixtures by distillation is based on differences in volatility between the components. The greater the... 

Transportation fuels are the largest consumers of crude oil. Petroleum-based transportation fuels are responsible for 35 percent of greenhouse gas emissions m the United States. Only percent of transportation fuels comes from renewable nonpetro-leum-based sources, primarily from the use of corn-based ethanol blended with gasoline to make gasohol. Increased use of biofuels could lower some of the pollution caused by the use of transportatiou fuels. 

Crude oil is the source for over. 1,(1(1() petroleum-based products for both industrial and consumer applications. The technique of distillation, the first stage processing of petroleum, exploits the different boiling points of the various petroleum fractions to separate out and isolate for use the different portions of the crude. The type and proportions of hydrocarbons present in each fraction depends upon the type of crude oil used and the range of temperatures employed. The major products produced directly... 

Petroleum, whether crude or refined products, need no longer be added to water-based muds. Adequate substitutes exist and are, for most situations, economically viable. Levels of 1% or more of crude oil may be present in drilled rock cuttings, some of which will be in the mud. 

In addition to being major sources of hydrocarbon-based petrochemicals, crude oils and natural gases are precursors of a special group of compounds or mixtures that are classified as nonhydrocarbon intermediates. Among these are the synthesis gas mixture, hydrogen, sulfur, and carbon black. These materials are of great economic importance and are discussed in Chapter 4. 

Based on prior knowledge of crude oil foaming properties, a separator large enough to cope with foam formation may be installed. 

High-Temperature Defoamers. Polyisobutylene compounds are particularly effective in high-temperature (300° to 1 XX)° F) treatments of hydrocarbon fluids [786,788], such as during the distillation of crude oil and coking of crude oil residues. Polyisobutylene compounds are less expensive than silicone-based compounds. 

Interpretation of NMR well logs is usually made with the assumption that the formation is water-wet such that water occupies the smaller pores and oil relaxes as the bulk fluid. Examination of crude oil, brine, rock systems show that a mixed-wet condition is more common than a water-wet condition, but the NMR interpretation may not be adversely affected [47]. Surfactants used in oil-based drilling fluids have a significant effect on wettability and the NMR response can be correlated with the Amott-Harvey wettability index [46]. These surfactants can have an effect on the estimation of the irreducible water saturation unless compensated by adjusting the T2 cut-off [48]. 

Figure 4. Content of Subfractions of Crude Oil and Shale Oil by Ion Exchange Chromatography (A = Acid, B = Base, and N = Neutral Fractions).

Figure 6. Interfacial Tension versus Alkali Concentrations for the Base (B1 to B3) Fractions of Crude Oil and Shale Oil.

In Japan, the standard Eco Mark Product Category No. 102 Printing Ink Version 2.6 [26] sets on a voluntary basis standards for an environmentally friendly composition of printing inks. Since introduction of this standard in 1997, more than 90% of all offset inks in Japan were reformulated to inks free from aromatic compounds ( white oil ). To fulfil the above-mentioned standard, the inks should be based on vegetable oils. They should not contain more than 1 vol.% of aromatic hydrocarbons ( white oils ). Additionally, sheet-fed offset inks should not contain more than 30% of crude oil-based solvents and not more than 3% VOC. Web offset inks should contain no more than 45% crude oil solvents (which seems not really to be a progress in comparison to typical standard inks). By the way, it is expected from vegetable oil-based inks that the print products are as deinkable as conventional mineral oil-based offset inks. 

There is a much wider choice of hydrophobes. Most are based on substantially linear long-chain alkanes, either saturated or unsaturated. These were originally obtained from naturally occurring fats and oils such as castor, fish, olive, sperm, coconut and tallow oils, but these sources were later superseded by petroleum products which at that time were cheaper. More recently, not only has the price of crude oil escalated, but there has also been a growing... 

Characterisations of crude oil based on their metal [65,92], nitrogen [92,93], and sulfur [99] contents have been carried out. 

The ternary diagram in Figure 4 shows the composition of crude oil samples based on the content of normal plus isoalkenes (parafliins), cycloalkenes (naphtenes), and aromatic hydrocarbons plus polar, heteroatomic compounds (NSO). 

Figure 4. Ternary diagram showing the composition of six classes of crude oils based on the analysis of 541 oils (from Engel and Macho, 1993).

The kerogen content of different oil shales, i.e., the average yield of oil of an oil shale can vary greatly. Most oil shales have oil yields between 50 and 150 1 oil/t oil shale, rich shales may even yield more than 200 1/t. A particular characteristic of oil shale is its high areal density, which can exceed 1 million b/acre at its thickest (Bunger et al., 2004). Oil shale can also be used directly as fuel for electricity generation, as, for instance, in Estonia. However, oil shale is characterised by a low calorific value between 7.5 and 9 MJ/kg (based on LHV), which is about one fifth of the energy content of crude oil (Porath, 1999). 

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