At the Industrial Scale

An additional advantage of this methodology is that it is amenable to both at-line and on-line measurements, under a variety of circumstances. 

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The effect of increasing column diameter is to increase the tendency for circulation, and hence to increase the axial mixing (62,63). However, extremely few measurements of axial mixing at the industrial scale are available, so large-scale contactor design must still rely quite heavily on empirical experience with the particular type of equipment. 

In Section I, we mentioned that the TFM can simulate fluidized beds at engineering scales (height 1-2 m), and that the large-scale industrial fluidized-bed reactors (diameter 1-5m, height 3-20m) are still far beyond its capabilities. Clearly, it would be highly desirable to predict the properties of gas-solid flows at the industrial scale however at present, there is no fully evolved model— based on fundamental principles—which is capable of this. In this section, we outline some new ideas in this direction that have been developed both at the... 

An Integrated Approach to Developing Chemoenzymatic Processes at the Industrial Scale... 

DTDMAC was the first widely used cationic surfactant produced at the industrial scale since the 1960s. Its main application was as a fabric softening active agent. Due to its physico-chemical properties, largely determined by the positively charged head group and the long alkyl chains, it adsorbs onto fabrics and makes textiles feel soft. 

DTDMAC (Table 1.3) is produced at the industrial scale by combining a suitable amine with an alkylating agent. 

Recently, anaerobic digestion (AD) has recovered the attention of the scientific community, since it represents a suitable and promising solution to reduce the organic matter and pathogenic organisms from wastewater [12]. Nevertheless, AD process is not widely applied at the industrial scale [36],... 

As an illustration of the different modules. Figure 13 describes the rules associated to Qin and pH (t.e., the basic instrumentation at the industrial scale). In these figures, the following nomenclature was adopted ... 

A number of zeolite syntheses result in incomplete conversion of all of the gel components to solid zeolite. In many cases the reactant Si/Al ratio is different than that of the product (usually higher), resulting in a silicate solution remaining behind. At the industrial scale this silicate solution is often recycled to minimize waste and raw material cost [34—36]. 

In order to develop cost-effective and environmentally friendly chemical processes at the industrial scale, it is essential to integrate biocatalysis and modem chemical catalysis to produce manufacturing routes with fewer synthetic steps, reducing waste steams and improving overall synthetic yields. Normally, in these tandem procedures, the initial step is the preparation of the intermediate by... 

At the industrial scale this extraction method is not installed yet for supercritical fluids. The reason is that the investment costs are relatively high because of the needed number of high pressure vessels in addition, for the case of different pressure levels and flow rates, in each extraction step one high pressure pump or compressor is necessary. 

Analytical methods can be transferred easily to the preparative scale in polysaccharide-based CSPs, and these compounds have been used in preparative chromatography. Cellulose triacetate, which has good loading capacity, has been used for preparative separation at the industrial scale [70,85]. Moreover, the low cost of cellulose triacetate synthesis makes CTA ideal for preparative chromatography. 

Electrochemical reactions may be carried out at any scale from the smallest to the largest and progress in nanotechnology has made it possible to address electron transfer at the single molecule level [26, 27]. Conversions at the laboratory scale are well established and have been addressed by numerous authors [1, 2] and, at the industrial scale, more than 50 electrochemical processes have reached a respectable level with the reductive hydrodimeri-sation of acrylonitrile to adiponitrile topping the list with an annual production of about 300 000 tons [28],... 

Mixed acetyl-isobutanoyl sucrose esters (SAIB) are used as phase densifiers in beverages.426,427 Sucralose (trichlorogalactosucrose) is produced at the industrial scale and marketed in the UK and other countries as a sweetener, having a 650 times the sweetening power of sucrose.428 Being more stable to heat as compared to other synthetic sweeteners, it can be used in cooking. It has also been shown that the sweet taste of sucralose is based on interactions with both subunits of the sweet-taste receptor.429... 

Most of the chemical reactions performed in the fine chemicals industry are exothermal, meaning that thermal energy is released during the reaction. It is obvious that the amount of energy released is directly linked to the potential damage in the case of an incident. For this reason, the heat of reaction is one of the key data, which allow assessment of the risks linked to a chemical reaction at the industrial scale. 

NPV production in a susceptible host insect is a relatively simple process, suitable for development at the industrial scale or at the "cottage industry" level. There are several particularly attractive small-scale production processes in modest facilities a good example is a production process for the NPV of the cabbage looper, Trlchoplusla ni, with an output of... 

In this chapter, the reactor dynamics under adiabatic and isoperibolic conditions is analyzed, while the temperature-controlled case is addressed in Chap. 5. It must be pointed out that these conditions can be easily realized in laboratory investigations, e.g., in reaction calorimetry, but represent mere ideality at the industrial scale. Nevertheless, this classification is useful to recognize the main paths leading to runaway without the burden of a more complex mathematical approach. 

Among the three known crystalline structures (a, j3, y) of isotactic polypropylene (PP), the -modification is certainly the most fascinating one. While the stable a-structure develops under standard process conditions, the occurrence of the /J-form has to be forced (i) by directional crystallization in a temperature gradient field [1-3] (ii) by shear-induced crystallization [4-12] or (iii) by the addition of specific nucleating agents [13-31]. This latter technique is preferred at the industrial scale. 

Ran, N., Zhao, L., Chen, Z., and Tao, J. 2008. Recent applications of biocatalysis in developing green chemistry for chemical synthesis at the industrial scale. Green Chemistry, 10 361-72. 

Originally, multichannel ceramic membranes have been produced at the industrial scale by SCT-Exekia and Orehs in France with commercial elements registered, respectively, as Membralox and Kerasep. The membrane filtration area in this case can reach 0.35 m /element depending on channel diameter and the number of channels per element. FILTANIUM elements, representative of flower-like geometries, have been produced more recently by TAMI industries in France (Figure 6.3). These elements with a cross-section diameter of either 10 or 25 mm exhibit a number of channels that vary from 3 to 39 and a membrane filtration area of 0.5 m for the largest elements. The increase in membrane surface compared to equivalent cylindrical-shaped channels can be estimated at 30%. 

At the laboratory scale these energetic losses are easily controlled thus the main problem, relates to the potentiostat, or potential supply, power limitation, since most of the usual equipment affords between 70 and lOOW of usable electrical power. At the industrial scale, since the current intensities are considerably larger, serious problems arise from lost energy and temperature control of the cell. 

To conclude, the technique developed in this study proved to be reliable for the optimization of a complex control law, as well as the determination of its robustness. Further work will focus on the comparison of different usual control schemes. Their multi-objective optimization will help us to have a clear insight into their optimal performances. Other objectives formulations will also be studied that may lead to better understanding of these results by the decision maker. Typically, at the industrial scale, a WWTP manager does not want to discharge pollutant loads as low as possible but his objective is to have the insurance to meet the quality standards (usually in term of... 

Electrochemical reaction engineering deals with modeling, computation, and prediction of production rates of electrochemical processes under real technical conditions in a way that technical processes can reach their optimum performance at the industrial scale. As in chemical engineering, it centers on the appropriate choice of the electrochemical reactor, its size and geometry, mode of operation, and the operation conditions. This includes calculation of performance parameters, such as space-time yield,... 

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