Application and Economics

Primary alcohols are by far the most important products made via the hydroformylation route [852]. The lower alcohols (C3-C5) are used as solvents [853, 854,1032], the range from C4-Q3 mainly for the production of plasticizers, especially phthalates [853, 855] and the higher homologs above for detergent manufacture [853]. Nearly three-fourths of the 0x0 output is used for plasticizer manufacture [877, 904]. 

As an interesting new use the application of butanol for the manufacture of drinking water from salt water may be mentioned [343]. As to other uses see the booklet of Hoechst-Ruhrchemie Produkte aus der Oxo-S5mthese — Aldehyde, Alkohole, Sauren — [853]. 

Especially in the range of Cg-Ci3 the 0x0 route holds the dominating position since the other routes, like the aldol route starting from acetaldehyde, the hydrogenation of fatty acid esters or the Ziegler alcohol route, can hardly compete pricewise [342, 899]. 

The increase of oxo alcohol production is closely related to the growth rate of PVC since soft PVC contains approx. 30-40 wt-% of plasticizers which are mainly made from oxo alcohols and phthalic anhydride. As to the rapid growth of dialkyl phthalate manufacture in the USA, see fig. 13. 

In 1965 the western countries produced around 2.8 million tons of PVC containing approximately 800,000 tons of plasticizers [340]. A yearly growth rate of 10-15% is estimated both for PVC and for oxo products. From 1964 to 1966 a yearly growth rate of over 20 % was reported [863, 877]. 

---

In this section changes are described under the original headings, but some of the figures in Table 14.5 and in the subsections Methods of Application and Economics have also been updated. 

P.B.9 matches the standard cyan for three and four color printing (Sec. 1.8.1.1). The pigment is continually losing significance as it is being displaced by the similarly shaded [3-modification of Copper Phthalocyanine Blue. The latter offers a number of applicational and economical advantages. P.B.9 continues to be used in mass colored paper, textile printing, and in colored pencils. 

Coal Gasification Systems A Guide to Status, Applications and Economics, prepared by Synthetic Fuels Associates, Inc., EPRIAP-3109, Project 2207, Final Report June 1983. 

Operational application and economics often determine trade-off choices between sensitivity and sampling time. Since sensing units have historically tended to increase in cost and fragility with sensitivity, increasing sampling time may offer a desirable option for some system designs. 

Cold Applied Coatings/Adhesives. Cold applied BUR applications do not require heating to fluidize the bitumen on the job. Simple application and economical maintenance are primary considerations. Bitumens are liquefied by dissolving in a solvent (cutbacks) or dispersing in water... 

Although thermal performance is a principal property of thermal insulation (13—15), suitability for temperature and environmental conditions compressive, flexure, shear, and tensile strengths resistance to moisture absorption dimensional stability shock and vibration resistance chemical, environmental, and erosion resistance space limitations fire resistance health effects availability and ease of application and economics are also considerations. 

F. Lipnizki, R.F. Feld and P.-K. Ten, Pervaporation-based Hybrid Processes A Review of Process Design Applications and Economics, J. Membr. Sci. 153, 183 (1999). 

The available information leads one to believe that the maximum production of liquids with no net hydrogen consumption and the low-temperature catalytic hydrocarbonization/gasification are alternatives which appear to have great merit. The former of these, when applied to western coals, appears to be technically ready for commercial application and economically competitive with alternative coal liquefaction processes. Advantages of the flash hydropyrolysis processes over the Coalcon process are difficult to perceive. 

Fowler MW (1983) Commercial applications and economic aspects of mass plant-cell culture. In Mantel SH, Smith H (eds) Plant biotechnology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, p 3... 

Owing to the increase in attempted diversions of ephedra from licit trade involving States members of the European Union during 2006, the European Union decided in 2007 to treat ephedra as a natural product containing ephedrine that can be easily used or extracted by readily applicable and economically viable means, thus bringing it under the scope of article 12 of the 1988 Convention. 

Over the past four decades numerous complete and pertinent reviews have been devoted to isobutene-based polymers [ 1,11 -19] and this presentation will be limited to a survey of the main current processes, products, applications, and economic aspects. 

F. Lipzinski, R.W. Field and P.-K. Ten, 1999, Pervaporation-based hybrid proeess a review of process design, applications and economics, Journal of Membrane Seienee vol. 153, 183 - 10. 

Because of the above considerations, selection of a low- or high-temperature HTF for a given application depends on a number of factors. The choice of a particular fluid is invariably a compromise that best suits the specific application and economics. Following is a list of criteria that should be used while selecting a fluid ... 

Sadana, A. Applications and economics of bioseparation. In Bioseparation of Proteins. Unfolding/ Folding and Validations, Satinder, A. Ed. Separation Science and Technology series Academic Press San Diego, 1998 Vol. 1,259-285. 

A training course, "Methodologies, Applications and Economics of Combmatonal Chemistry and Combinatorial Technologies," heldinpiana di Monte Verna, Italy, on September 8-19,1997, hosted and co-orgamzed by TECNOGEN... 

A workshop, "Combmatonal Technologies—Awareness and Familiarization for Decision Makers and a training workshop "Methods, Applications and Economics of Combmatonal Chemistry and Combmatonal Technology" held m Hyderabad, India October 23—31, 1998, hosted and co—organized by the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), Indian Institute of Chemical Technology (IICT)... 

Metaxas, A. C. Meredith, R. J. Industrial Applications and Economics. In Industrial Microwaves Heating-, Peter Peregrinus Ltd for the Institute of Electrical Engineers London, 1983 Chap. 11 pp 296—321 (reprinted 1993). 

These materials were developed for a variety of applications and economic sectors, such as ... 

Stewart, D. Lignin as a base material for materials applications. Chemistry, application and economics. Ind. Crops Prod. 27, 202-207 (2008)... 

Multiple use of treated waste water Multiple use of treated waste water needs to be considered, e.g. using process water from sand preparation in the moulding sand cycle or in slag granulation. The use of cooling water in wet scrubbing may also be considered Use of waste heat for the evaporation of waste water This technique can only be applied when waste heat is available on a continuous basis. A case-by-case evaluation is needed to evaluate its applicability and economic viability... 

Considering the thermal instability of PVC, it becomes clear why the worldwide consumption volume of stabilizers required for this raie type of plastic and its modifications exceeds 250,000 t/a to meet the constantly increasing consumption of PVC, now at 14 million t/a worldwide. Modem stabilizer selection is not based on application and economics only, but also on toxicological assessments, which may differ from country to country. The USA and France, for example, do not allow the use of lead compounds in drinking water pipelines, replacing them with tin-based... 

Microporous silica hydrogen permselective membranes have been extensively studied as a potentially more practical alternative to Pd membranes. Very recently, a comprehensive review was published, tackling various aspects of silica membrane synthesis, application and economics [63]. It was made evident that state-of-the-art silica membranes have good hydrogen flux and separation, as well as respectable thermal stability. However, the hydrothermal stability of a silica hydrogen permselective membrane is a key factor in determining its suitability for a commercial apphcation of membrane-assisted processes. 

Therefore, it is probable that developments in fuel cells in terms of core research, practical applications, and economic attractiveness will be characterized by steady but measured progress. 

Even without considering copolymers, i.e., polymers made by condensing two or more different diacids and/or two or more different diols, it is evident that there are hrmdreds of possibilities for aromatic polyesters. As is usually the case with potentially large families of polymers, combinations of physical properties, ease of processing, potential applications, and economics limit the number of family members that make it into successful commercial production and use. 

Thirdly, the evaluation for CO2 capture should be conducted under a simulated or even an actual flue gas condition, rather than the most often used equilibrium CO2 sorption for the current studies. In our opinion, the international facilities in this field should create the benchmarking materials and further the prototypical materials column, which can be used for the evaluation of the CO2 capture performance of newly emerging capture materials on the same standards. Beyond these considerations, the engineering economics of the new materials must be evaluated upon the scale-up of the materials for industrial applications, and economic models must be established to cover lifecycle CO2 separation, capture, and sequestration costs for various technologies. 

The in situ synthesis of polymers in the presence of nanoclays can produce good nanofiller dispersions but is often difficult to control and its production times are relatively long. Melt processing is certainly the most interesting preparation method from an application and economical point of view since it can be readily implemented into traditional polymer processing routes and provide reliable and reproducible products. 

---