Anthropogenic stress

Contemporary forest declines were initiated about 1950-1960, virtually simultaneously throughout the industrial world at the same time as damage to aquatic systems and structures became apparent. A broad array of natural and anthropogenic stresses have been identified as components of a complex web of primary causal factors that vary in time and space, interact among each other, affect various plant growth and development systems and may result in the death of trees in mountainous ecosystems. As these ecosystems decline, the alterations in forest ecology, independent of the initial causal complex, become themselves additional stress factor complexes leading to further alterations. 

Hnggett, R.J., Khnerle, R.H., and Mehrle, P.M. Jr. et al. (Eds.) (1992). Biomarkers Biochemical, Physiological and Histological Markers of Anthropogenic Stress. Boca Raton, EL Lewis. 

Invertebrate species have been widely used in toxicity studies of pesticides [61]. Zooplankton play a key role in the food chain because they occupy a central position. Therefore, their responses to natural and anthropogenic stresses are intimately linked with other food predator organisms. The most widely accepted bioassays employ species such as Ceriodaphnia dubia, Daphnia magna, Artemia salina, or Thamnocephalus platyurus [62-64]. D. magna has been used for many years as a standard aquatic test species and formally endorsed by the major international organizations such as the EEC, OECD, and ASTM [65-67]. Its choice is mainly because it represents the zooplankton community and is a species of worldwide occurrence. In addition, it has a greater sensitivity to toxicants, particularly pesticides, compared with other aquatic species [61,68] (Table 1). 

On the other hand, biotic factors include natural interactions (e.g., predation and parasitism) and anthropogenic stress (e.g., the effect of human activity on other organisms). Because of the abiotic and biotic factors, the environment to which an organism is subjected can affect the life functions, growth, and reproductive success of the organism and can determine the local and geographic distribution patterns of the organism. 

In terms of anthropogenic stress (the effect of human activity on other organisms), there is a need for the identification and evaluation of the potential impacts of proposed projects, plans, programs, policies, or legislative actions on the physical-chemical, biological, culmral, and socioeconomic components of the... 

Nowhere is the effect of anthropogenic stress felt more than in the development of natural resources of the Earth. Natural resources are varied in nature and often require definition. Eor example, in relation to mineral resources, for which there is also descriptive nomenclature (ASTM C294), the terms related to the available quantities of the resource must be defined. In this instance, the term resource refers to the total amount of the mineral that has been estimated to be available ultimately. The term reserves refers to well-identified resources that can profitably be extracted and utilized by means of existing technology. In many countries, fossil fuel resources are often classified as a subgroup of the total mineral resources. 

Research Priorities in Environmental Risk Assessment. Held in Breckenridge, Colorado, Aug 16 to 21,1987. Published by SETAC, 1987. Biomarkers Biochemical, Physiological, and Histological Markers of Anthropogenic Stress. Keystone, Colorado, 23 to 28 Jul 1989. Published as a SETAC Special Publication by Lewis Publishers, 1992. 

Huggett RJ, Kimerle RA, Mehrle PM, Bergman H, editors. 1992. Biomarkers biochemical, physiological and histological markers of anthropogenic stress. Boca Raton (FL) Lewis Publishers, 347 p. 

Schindler, D.W. (1987) Detecting ecosystem responses to anthropogenic stress. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 44, 6-25. 

On June 23, 2007, the Gazprom Company and the Italian oil firm Eni unveiled a plan for a large new pipeline to take Russian gas under the Black Sea to Europe. The 900-km South Stream pipeline would submerge on the Russian coast, come ashore in Bulgaria, and then branch to Austria and Slovenia in one spur and to southern Italy in another. All these projects require an adequate estimation of the aftereffects of the increasing anthropogenic stress on the sea environment. 

Whether reefs will have the residence to recover from multiple anthropogenic stresses (Hughes and Connell, 1999) is a major issue of concern to scientists and resource managers. Recent studies have highhghted the serious decHne in water quahty in coastal environments, including coral reef areas (Fabricius, 2005 Hutchins et al, 2005 Kuntz et al, 2005 Wilkinson, 2002 Barile, 2004). 

Clarity of interpretation. How clear cut is the endpoint as an indicator of exposure to anthropogenic stress Can the endpoints be clearly distinguished from natural stresses It is valuable to know the mechanism of response to the chemical in assessing this point. 

Kuksa VI (1994) The Southern Sea (Aral, Caspian, Azov and Black) under conditions of the anthropogenic stress. Gidrometeoizdat, St. Petersburg, p 319 (in Russian)... 

Findlay R. H. and Wailing L. (1997) Seasonal variation in sedimentary microbial community structure as a backdrop for the detection of anthropogenic stress. In Molecular Markers in Environmental Geochemistry (ed. R. P. Eganhouse), pp. 49 -64. American Chemical Society, Washington, DC. 

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