Alternative water sources

Within the frame of the EU-funded project GABARDINE (2005-2008 http // www.geoservice.gr/), the identification of alternative sources of water and the feasibility, both environmental and economic, of their utilisation were explored. Alternative water sources to be artificially recharged comprised surface water runoff, treated effluent and imported water. 

The paper provides an overall cooling system model called Unimod. The model is applied to present and future cooling system requirements, and eliminates plant trials of treatment chemicals. At a midwest refinery petrochemical plant, oil leaks, the use of four alternating water sources, and entrained solids were causing heat transfer losses and unscheduled shutdowns. In less than an hour, the model identified the best of the available water sources and blends, and recommended a treatment program for use before each water change. This enabled the refinery to increase heat transfer by 20%, eliminate unscheduled shutdowns, and with treatment, use the plant wastewater safely for all cooling water makeup. 

C. Reith and B. Birkenhead, Membranes enabling the affordable and cost effective reuse of wastewater as an alternative water source. Desalination 117, 203-210 (1998). 

Wells contaminated with pesticides are on alternate water sources. 

Alternative water sources are expected to play a significant role in areas suffering water shortages. In many places, waste water reuse is becoming a valuable component of sustainable water management practises. However, substantial and practical information is still needed to safely design, implement and operate waste water reuse schemes. 

Lu, X., Liu, L., Liu, R., Chen, J., 2010. Textile wastewater reuse as an alternative water source for dyeing and finishing processes a case study. Desalination 258, 229—232. 

Planning for the future in Mediterranean climates requires serious investments in water conservation and consideration of alternative freshwater sources. Alternative... 

H2 serves as the alternative energy source relative to fossil fuels and biomass [181] because it is clean and environmentally friendly. Hence, catalytic hydrogen generation from water under mild conditions is one of the goals for the organometallic catalysis. One of the hopeful methods is the electrochemical reduction of protons by a hydrogenase mimic. 

An alternative water supply would be included to provide a safe and reliable source of drinking water until the concentrations in the aquifer reach acceptable levels. 

The dsz genes in ECRD-1 are expressed at a baseline level constitutively in the presence of sulfate, although their levels are presumably higher in the absence of sulfate. Studies were conducted with and without sulfate. The Rhodococcus cells are known to use alkanes as substrates, thus an alternate carbon source was used to minimize hydrocarbon degradation. The hydrocarbon profile of the oils was demonstrated to be the same before and after the desulfurization. The experiments were aimed at identifying the extent of desulfurization of these oils and so were conducted at oil to water ratio of 1 1000. The results showed 90% or higher removal of CO to C4 DBTs in fully induced cells (without sulfate). In the presence of sulfate, the extent removal was lower. 

Homogeneous catalysts have now been reported for hydrogenation of carbon monoxide, a combustion product of coal (see Section VI,B). More effective catalysts will undoubtedly be discovered in the near future. Polynuclear or, at least, binuclear sites are favored for reduction of the triple bond in carbon monoxide (see Section VI,B), and this together with the popular parallelism to heterogeneous systems, has renewed interest in metal clusters as catalysts (see Section VI). A nickel cluster is the first catalyst reported for mild (and selective) hydrogenation of the triple bond in isocyanide (see Section VI,A). The use of carbon monoxide and water as an alternative hydrogen source is reattracting interest (see Section VI,C). 

In an attempt to produce TS-1 at low cost, alternative, cheaper sources of Ti and Si and other bases such as binary mixtures of (tetrabutylammonium and tetraethylammonium hydroxides), (tetrabutylphosphonium and tetraethylpho-sphonium hydroxides), (tetrapropylammonium bromide and ammonia, water, hexanediamine, n-butylamine, diethylamine, ethylenediamine, or triethanolamine) in place of TPAOH have been used (284—294). TS-1 was synthesized in the presence of fluoride ions but the material thus formed contained extraframework Ti species (295-297). 

In watersheds where surface runoff is limited by infiltration rate rather than soil-water storage capacity, areas of the watershed can alternate between sources and sinks of surface flow. This again will be a function of soil properties, rainfall intensity and duration, and antecedent moisture condition. As surface runoff is the main mechanism by which phosphorus is exported from most watersheds, it is clear that, if surface runoff does not occur, phosphorus export can be small. Thus, consideration of hydro-logic pathways and variable source areas is critical to a more detailed understanding of phosphorus export from agricultural watersheds. 

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