Addiction, alkaloid

Popik P. (1996). Facilitation of memory retrieval by the "anti-addictive" alkaloid, ibogaine. Life Sci. 59(24) PL37945. 

Popik P, Glick SD. (1996). Ibogaine, a putatively anti-addictive alkaloid. Drugs of the Future. 21(11) 1109-15. 

Four examples of organic compounds in living organisms. Tobacco contains nicotine, an addictive alkaloid. Rose hips contain vitamin C, essential for preventing scurvy. The red dye carmine comes from cochineal insects, shown on a prickly pear cactus. Opium poppies contain morphine, a pain-relieving, addictive alkaloid. 

An opium alkaloid Although it is an excellent analgesic its use is restricted because of the potential for addiction Heroin is the diacetate ester of morphine )... 

Maisonneuve, I.M., Glick, S.D. Anti-addictive actions of an iboga alkaloid congener a novel mechanism for a novel treatment. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 75 607, 2003. 

Chewing leaves of the khat shrub is practiced in parts of East Africa and the Arabian peninsula (Kalix 1988 Widler et al. 1994). Some estimate daily use at 5 million portions. Use in the West is less common, but has increased somewhat. More common in the United States has been use of the synthetic drug methcathinone (or "cat"), which is derived from khat alkaloids. Only the fresh khat leaves are pharmacologically active, so for some time use was limited to local areas that grew the plant. However, with air transportation, use has spread with emigrants in Europe and the United States. Because of its pharmacological similarities to amphetamine and its addictive properties, khat has been listed on Schedule I of the United Nations Convention on Psychotropic Substances. 

Opioids are administered in several ways. Opium was most commonly taken recreationally by smoking, but intravenous administration has become most common since the isolation of opium alkaloids and invention of the hypodermic needle. The development of heroin from morphine at the turn of the twentieth century led to more intense euphoric effects and greater risk for addiction. Heroin may also be snorted, or it can be smoked when added to a medium such as tobacco. Medically, opioids are commonly given through oral, subcutaneous, intravenous, transdermal, or rectal routes. 

Ibogaine has demonstrated toxic effects, which could potentially limit its usefulness in treating addiction. However, the proper dosage of alternative iboga alkaloids may avert this problem. The median lethal dose of ibogaine is 82 mg/kg in the guinea pig and 327 mg/kg in the rat (Dhahir 1971 Delourme-Houde 1946). Use of ibogaine for addiction treatment has been associated with two deaths overseas. 

An understanding of the pharmacology of nicotine and how nicotine produces addiction and influences smoking behavior provides a necessary basis for therapeutic advances in smoking cessation interventions. This chapter provides a review of several aspects of the human pharmacology of nicotine. These include the presence and levels of nicotine and related alkaloids in tobacco products, the absorption of nicotine from tobacco products and nicotine medications, the distribution of nicotine in body tissues, the metabolism and renal excretion of nicotine, nicotine and cotinine blood levels during tobacco use or nicotine replacement therapy, and biomarkers of nicotine exposure. For more details and references on the pharmacokinetics and metabolism of nicotine, the reader is referred to Hukkanen et al. (2005c). 

The most direct way to help people manage the symptoms of nicotine dependence and withdrawal is therapeutic use of nicotine replacement therapy (NRT) (Fiore et al. 2000 Henningfleld 1995 American Psychiatric Association 1996). Nicotine has been shown to be the main active ingredient in tobacco that causes and sustains addiction to tobacco (US Department of Health and Human Services 1988). Laboratory research has demonstrated that animals (Goldberg et al. 1983) and humans (Henningfleld et al. 1983) who have been chronically exposed to nicotine or tobacco smoke will self-administer nicotine infusions. It should be noted that other constituents in tobacco, such as MAO inhibitors (Fowler et al. 1996a, b), may also play a role in tobacco dependence. The potential role of alkaloids other than nicotine has not been ruled out. This is consistent with the observations that what has been termed tobacco delivered nicotine is more addictive and toxic than formulations provided by nicotine replacement medications (Royal College of Physicians 2000). 

Nicotine is a plant product, particularly abundant in tobacco. Plant products containing ring structures and at least one nitrogen atom are known as alkaloids. Nicotine is one of the most addictive substances known ask any cigarette smoker who has tried to quit. 

This drug is over three times more powerful than morphine. Although, not as addictive as morphine, it is still addictive and should be used irregularly, with a great deal of care. The starting material is the useless alkaloid thebaine, which can be purchased from most any chemical supply company. The first two steps can be eliminated by purchasing this particular substance directly from chemical suppliers. 

Morphine and cocaine Morphine is medically the most important alkaloid present in opium. Opium itself consists of the dried milky exudate extracted from unripe capsules of the opium poppy (Papaver somniferum), which is grown mainly in Asia, but also in some parts of India and China. Morphine is a powerful analgesic and has been used to treat severe pain. However, its addictive properties complicate its long-term medical use and it is also a drug of abuse. In addition to morphine, opium also contains codeine, which has similar, but weaker, actions. 

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