Euphoric effect

In addition to its ancient origins, part of the traditional mysticism about wine relates to its euphoric effect. Certainly this would have seemed magical in earhest times. It contributed to involvement of wine in religion, in rituals and in celebration. This fact today is still reflected in the special rituahstic place accorded wines. 

Other systems also interact with glutamate. Activation of L-type voltagegated calcium channels (VGCC) occurs with NMDA receptor activation. Lamotrigine blocks several ion channels, including P- and N-type VGCC channels, an action that blocks the euphoric effects of ketamine and reduces dysphoric and cognitive effects (Hundt et al. 1998). Other modulatory sites,... 

Methadone is a p receptor agonist with special properties that make it particularly useful as a maintenance agent. Rehably absorbed orally, it does not reach peak concentration until about 4 hours after administration and maintains a large extravascular reservoir (Kreek 1979). These properties minimize acute euphoric effects. The reservoir results in a plasma half-life of 1—2 days, so there are usually no rapid blood level drops that could lead to withdrawal syndromes between daily doses. Effective blood levels are in the range of 200-500 ng/mL. Trough levels of 400 ng/mL are considered optimal (Payte and Khouri 1993). There is wide variability among individuals in blood levels with identical doses (Kreek 1979), and some have inadequate levels even with doses as high as 200 mg/day (Tennant 1987 Tenore 2003). 

A dramatically different pattern is found in surveys of drug abuse treatment facilities. Substance abuse treatment centers have reported that more than 20% of patients use benzodiazepines weekly or more frequently, with 30%— 90% of opioid abusers reporting illicit use (Iguchi et al. 1993 Stitzer et al 1981). Methadone clinics reported that high proportions ofurine samples are positive for benzodiazepines (Darke et al. 2003 Dinwiddle et al. 1996 Ross and Darke 2000 Seivewright 2001 Strain et al. 1991 Williams et al. 1996). The reasons for the high rates of benzodiazepine use in opioid addicts include self-medication of insomnia, anxiety, and withdrawal symptoms, as well as attempts to boost the euphoric effects of opioids. 

Stimulants induce both tolerance and sensitization to their behavioral effects. Tolerance develops to the anorectic and euphoric effects of stimulants (Schuster 1981) however, chronic intermittent use of low doses of stimulants delays the development of tolerance. With the doses commonly used in clinical practice, patients treated for narcolepsy or for depressive or apathetic states find that the stimulant properties usually persist without development of tolerance however, the persistence of antidepressant effects remains a matter of controversy. Sensitization has been linked to the development of amphetamine-induced psychosis (Yui et al. 1999). Sensitization to the induction of psychosis is suggested because psychosis is induced by progressively lower doses and shorter periods of consumption of amphetamine following repeated use over time (Sato 1986). Sensitization for amphetamine-induced psychosis may persist despite long periods of abstinence. 

GHB has sedative, anxiolytic, and euphoric effects similar to ethanol, likely because of potentiation of cerebral GABAergic and dopaminergic activities. 

Cannabis sativa, one of the oldest plants farmed by man, has been known for its medicinal properties for at least four millennia (Peters, 1999). The psychoactive-euphoric effects of this plant, as well as its facile and wide climatic range of cultivation, have rendered it a very popular recreational drug. Today, cannabis, or marijuana, is still the focus of strong social, legal, and medical controversy over its therapeutic utility. 

A man habitually enjoyed the euphoric effects of inhaling whiffs of nitrous oxide in seclusion, and kept a cylinder of the gas in his sedan for that purpose. He decided to spray the faded car seats with an aerosol can of vinyl dressing (propanc/butanc propellant) with the windows closed. Then he had a whiff of gas from the briefly opened cylinder, and settled back to enjoy the euphoria and a cigarette. He was lucky to survive the resulting explosion of the fuel/oxidant mixture in a closed vessel [2],... 

Central loci believed to be involved in morphine dependence are the ventral tegmental area and nucleus accumbens. ft receptor mRNA and immunoreactivity were also detected in these regions as well as the hippocampus and amygdala, other regions that may be involved in the euphoric effects of fi agonists. 

The answer is b. (Kn.lzu.ng, p 5.38.) Crack is the free-base (nonsalt) form of the alkaloid cocaine. It is called crack because, when heated, it makes a crackling sound. Heating crack enables a person to smoke it the drug is readily absorbed through the lungs and produces an intense euphoric effect in seconds Use has led to seizures and cardiac arrhythmias. Some of cocaine s effects (sympathomimetic) are due to blockade of norepinephrine reuptake into presynaptic terminals it does not block receptors. Flashbacks can occur with use of LSD and mescaline but have not been associated with the use of cocaine. 

Szara and co-workers (221,223,225) noted psychotomimetic activity for N,N-diethyltryptamine (DET 38) at a dose of 1 mg/kg. In at least one study (223), the effects of DET were found to be unpleasant. In a study involving 71 subjects, DET produced behavioral effects at intramuscular doses of approximately 50 mg (0.65 to 0.85 mg/kg) (19). The duration of action of DET was somewhat longer (about 3 hr) than that of DMT. Interestingly, some subjects in the latter study reported, in contrast to Szara s findings, that DET produced a euphoric effect. Szara has suggested that this might be a dose-related phenomenon. 

Addiction is a prominent problem with cocaine use. Cocaine is highly reinforcing to both animals and humans, probably through inhibition of dopamine reuptake in mesolimbic systems and stimulation of brain areas known to subserve behavioral reinforcement (Kiyatkin and Stein 1995 Woolverton and Johnson 1992 Ritz et al. 1987). Although sensitization to the stimulant effects occurs in animals, humans do not sensitize to the euphoric effects of cocaine but develop a tolerance (O Brien 1996). In animals and humans alike, self-administration often follows a binge pattern, consisting of repeated use over a period of hours or days until the supply is used up. 

Opioids are administered in several ways. Opium was most commonly taken recreationally by smoking, but intravenous administration has become most common since the isolation of opium alkaloids and invention of the hypodermic needle. The development of heroin from morphine at the turn of the twentieth century led to more intense euphoric effects and greater risk for addiction. Heroin may also be snorted, or it can be smoked when added to a medium such as tobacco. Medically, opioids are commonly given through oral, subcutaneous, intravenous, transdermal, or rectal routes. 

Stimulants. The first stimulaut, amphetamiue, was introduced in the late 1800s. Over the next 50 years, amphetamines were used to treat a variety of couditious iucludiug depressiou. The stimulauts were easier to tolerate than the TCAs and somewhat safer. Unfortunately, they also produced euphoric effects leading to rampart speed freak abuse iu the 1960s. 

Oxymorphone is approximately 10 times more active than morphine. Euphoric effects as well as vomiting are expressed significantly stronger than in morphine. Oxymorphone also displays poor antitussive activity. 

Drug abuse and dependence In a study of abuse liability conducted in individuals with known histories of benzodiazepine abuse, doses of eszopiclone 6 and 12 mg produced euphoric effects similar to those of diazepam 20 mg. 

Benzodiazepines and barbiturates are self-administered by animals (Koob, 1992). Unlike other rewarding drugs, these are not believed to release dopamine from the nucleus accumbens or prefrontal cortex (Nutt, 1996 Di Chiara Im-perato, 1988 Spanagel Weiss, 1999). However, it is possible that they do so when used for euphoric effects in the high dosages used by benzodiazepine abusers (Strang et al., 1993). 

Interaction at the K-receptor increases the sedative effects of the drugs. The euphoric effects are due to interaction with the jL-receptor. The dysphoric and psychotomimetic side effects of the drugs are attributed to interaction at the n-receptor. 

Treatment with steroids may initially evoke euphoria. This reaction can be a consequence of the salutary effects of the steroids on the inflammatory process or a direct effect on the psyche. The expression of the unpredictable and often profound effects exerted by steroids on mental processes generally reflects the personality of the individual. Psychiatric side effects induced by glucocorticoids may include mania, depression, or mood disturbances. Restlessness and early-morning insomnia may be forerunners of severe psychotic reactions. In such situations, cessation of treatment might be considered, especially in patients with a history of personality disorders. In addition, patients may become psychically dependent on steroids as a result of their euphoric effect, and withdrawal of the treatment may precipitate an emotional crisis, with suicide or psychosis as a consequence. Patients with Cushing s syndrome may also exhibit mood changes, which are reversed by effective treatment of the hypercortisolism. 

Buspirone. Several comparative studies of buspirone and benzodiazepines have reported comparable efficacy in reducing symptoms of anxiety. However, in contrast to benzodiazepines, buspirone is devoid of significant sedative or euphoric effects. Treatment with buspirone and other azaperones, such as gepirone, ipsapirone, and tandospirone, does not result in abuse, addiction, dependence, or withdrawal symptoms [Keppel Hesselink 1992). Buspirone also spares both cognitive and psychomotor performance [N. Sussman 1994). 

The details of the earliest cultivation and use of opium for its euphoric effects are highly disputed, as it certainly predates the existence of written languages. Therefore, there are no physical records that date back to the beginnings of opium s use. Another difficulty in pinpointing the earliest use of opium is that it comes from the pod of a specific type of poppy plant called Papaver somniferum. In addition... 

Chronic use of codeine leads to tolerance. After repeated use of codeine, a particular dose loses its effect so that a higher dose is needed to provide the desired effect (such as relief from pain or coughing) that a smaller dose originally provided. This loss of sensitivity to a given dose of codeine is known as tolerance. Eventually, tolerance even develops to the euphoric effect ( high ) of codeine, so that the euphoria becomes less intense over time. A patient may also develop a tolerance to some of codeine s other effects, both medicinal and toxic for example, tolerance develops to codeine s analgesic and sedative effects, but not to its constipating (antidiarrheal) effect. 

Eszopiclone is available in 1-, 2-, and 3-mg tablets for oral administration. The maximum recommended dose is 3 mg/night. In the elderly, this dose is reduced to maximum of 2 mg. No evidence of tolerance or dependence has been reported, but long-term use should be approached with caution. In addition, eszopiclone should be used cautiously in substance abuse patients because trials have shown euphoric effects at high doses. 

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