Vasoactive intestinal polypeptide neurons

Ishihara, T., Shigemoto, R, Mori, K. etal. (1992). Functional expression and tissue distribution of a novel receptor for vasoactive intestinal polypeptide. Neuron 8, 811-819. 

CGRP is widely distributed throughout the peripheral and central nervous systems and is found ia sensory neurons and ia the autonomic and enteric nervous systems. In many iastances CGRP is co-localized with other neuroregulators, eg, ACh ia motor neurons, substance P, somatostatin, vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP), and galanin ia sensory neurons. It is also present ia the CNS, with ACh ia the parabigeminal nucleus and with cholecystokinin (CCK) ia the dorsal parabrachial area. CGRP functions as a neuromodulator or co-transmitter. 

The release of some peptides may differ from that of other transmitters, depending on the firing rate of the neurons. The large vesicles needed to store a peptide may need a greater rate of depolarisation for membrane fusion and release of the contents. In the salivary gland the release of vasoactive intestinal polypeptide requires high-frequency stimulation whereas acetylcholine is released by all stimuli. Due to the complexities and problems of access to CNS synapses it is not known if the same occurs here but there is no reason why this should not. In sensory C-fibres a prolonged stimulus appears to be a prerequisite for the release of substance P. 

Kohlmeier KA, Reiner PB. Vasoactive intestinal polypeptide excites medial pontine reticular formation neurons in the brainstem rapid eye movement sleep-induction zone. J Neurosci 1999 19 4073-81. 

Seroogy K, Tsuruo Y, Hokfelt T, Walsh J, Fahrenkrug J, Emson PC, Goldstein M (1988) Further analysis of presence of peptides in dopamine neurons cholecystokinin, peptide histidine-isoleucine/vasoactive intestinal polypeptide and substance P in rat supramammillary region and mesencephalon. Exp Brain Res 72 523-534. 

Before the era of synuclein immunocytochemistry, Qualman et al. (1984) observed in a postmortem study LBs in the esophageal Auerbach plexus of two dysphagic PD patients but not in Meissner s plexus. Subsequently, Wakabayashi et al. (1988) reported LBs and LNs in both plexuses of clinically diagnosed PD patients and asymptomatic incidental cases. In the gut, the bulk of the proteins were observed in cellular processes and cell bodies of vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIPergic) neurons (Wakabayashi et al., 1988,1993). 

Lopez-Mascaraque L, Villalba RM, de Carlos JA. 1989. Vasoactive intestinal polypeptide-immunoreactive neurons in the main olfactory bulb of the hedgehog (Erinaceus euro-paeus). Neurosci Lett 98 19-21. 

Burns GA, Stephens KE (1995) Expression of mRNA for the A-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDARl) receptor and vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP) co-exist in enteric neurons of the rat. J Auton Nerv Syst 55 207-210. 

A second class of EPL neurons are the Van Gehuchten cells. These cells are characterized by two or more thick primary dendrites that remain in the EPL. Axons from these cells terminate around mitral and tufted cells. Many of these Van Gehuchten cells stain positively for vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (Sanides Kohlrausch and Wahle, 1990b) calcium binding protein (Brinon et al. 1992 Alonso et al. 1993) and parvalbumin (Celio, 1990) (Fig. 9B). 

Otten, U. and Lorenz, H.P. (1982) Nerve growth factor increases substance P, cholecystokinin and vasoactive intestinal polypeptide immunoreactivity in primary sensory neurones of new-born rats. Neurosci. Lett. 34 153-158. 

Some genes which show late expression after addition of CDF/LIF have been identified. For example, in cultured sympathetic neurons CDF/LIF induces transcription of not only the acetylcholine gene, but also the genes coding for substance P, somatostatin, cholecystokinin, enkephalin and vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (Nawa and Patterson, 1990 Fann and Patterson, 1994). The transcription of muscarinic acetylcholine receptor genes and substance P receptor genes is also induced (Ludlam et al., 1994). On the other hand, CDF/LIF suppresses catecholamine synthesis. In osteoblast-like cells, LIF suppresses alkaline... 

Deutsch S, Sherman L (1980) Previously unrecognized diabetes mellitus in sexually impotent men. JAMA 244 2430-2432 Ehmke H, Junemann KP, Mayer B et al (1995) Nitric oxide synthase and vasoactive intestinal polypeptide colocalization in neurons innervating the human penile circulation. Int J Impot Res 7 147-156 Faerman I, Glocer L, Fox D et al (1974) Impotence and diabetes. Histological studies of the autonomic nervous libers of the corpora cavernosa in impotent diabetic males. Diabetes 23 971-976... 

Originally isolated from the hypothalamus, somatostatin is a small polypeptide that is also found in neurons throughout the body, as well as in the intestine and pancreas. Somatostatin therefore predictably has a number of actions. Octreotide [awk TREE oh tide] is a synthetic octapeptide analog of somatostatin. It has a much longer half-life than the natural compound and has found use in the treatment of acromegaly caused by hormone-secreting tumors, and secretory diarrhea associated with tumors producing the vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP). Adverse effects of octreotide treatment are flatulence, nausea, and steatorrhea. 

Vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) is a neuroactive 29-amino acid polypeptide, structurally related to glucagon (for a review see Said, 1991). This neuropeptide is released by preganglionic sympathetic neurons, along with acetylcholine, and regulates mitosis, differentiation and survival of cultured sympathetic neuroblasts (Pincus et al.,... 

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