Total carbon mass emissions

Table 1 Emission of CO at the outlet model 1 (char emitted from the bed is 5% of the total carbon mass of the wet-wood chip) model 2 (no char burnout included).

SO2, NOx, and total hydrocarbons. The mass spectrometric gas analysis is on a wet basis, as water vapor is not condensed out of the gas, while the analyzers at the sample port measure a gas stream dried using a permeation tube and refrigeration-type dryers in series. In addition to the measurements described above, surface temperature measurements of the boiler skin are made to estimate radiation losses, using the skin temperature, the room temperature and tabulated heat loss factors based on the temperature difference. Particulate mass emission rate and carbon content are measured for heat and mass balance purposes. At present, material deposited within the boiler during a test is collected but not factored into the heat or mass balances, because this deposition is considered to be negligible. Data taken are used to examine the heat balance for the 20-hp system. 

Stavins and Richards (2005) find that biologic carbon sequestration is also a cost-effective strategy that could be part of a climate mitigation regime. In cases where it may be difficult to measure total mass emissions from these sources but relatively easy to measure emission reductions (e.g., reductions of methane from a landfill) these sources might be captured with project-level offset provisions rather than through inclusion in the cap-and-trade program (U.S. EPA 2003). 

Composition and size distribution of the emitted particles depend on the contribution of the individual emission sources related with road traffic—in particular combustion and non-tail-pipe emissions. Tailpipe emissions are vehicle exhaust emissions which are produced during fuel combustion (including additives) and released through the vehicle tailpipe (Rogge et al. 1993 Cadle et al. 1999). The particles derived from tail-pipe emissions are mainly composed of EC and OC, thus average total carbon emission rates are usually very close to the PM mass emission rates. Inorganic anions account for some percent of total tail-pipe emissions, the contribution of the elemental fraction is also in the order of few percent. 

Real-world emission rates of in-use motor vehicles (road traffic) can be quantified by measurements in road mnnels. The results reported for particle mass emissions in PMio varied from several mg veh km to some hundred mg veh km , with reduced amounts for the fine particle fraction PM2.5. The particles released mainly consist of EC, OC, soluble ions (NHj, S04 , NOs ) and mineral components (Si, Fe, Ca, Al, Mg). Trace metal emissions (Ba, Co, Cr, Cu, Mn, Ni, Pb, Sb, Sn, Sr, Ti, V, Zn) contribute usually for less than 1 % of total emissions in all size fractions. Observed particulate vehicle emissions could be attributed to several tailpipe and non-tailpipe sources. The main part of carbon emissions may be contributed to tail-pipe exhaust fraction, whereas the non-carbon emissions are most likely non-exhaust derived components. PMjo emissions are usually dominated by resuspended matter as well as by brake wear, whereas fine particles (PM2.5) are mainly derived from combustion processes. 

Correspondence between the vertical distribution of total organic carbon (TOC) at station 3C (approximately 6-8 km downcurrent from the outfall system) and the mass emissions of suspended solids from the outfall system during the period 1946-1981 is illustrated in Fig. 6. Following World War 11 and up until 1971, the monotonic increase in emissions of suspended solids from the LACSD paralleled the population trend in Los Angeles. Thereafter, solids emissions declined in response to improved source control and advances in waste treatment (Stull et al, 1996). The vertical concentration profile of TOC in the 3C (1981) core records the historical trend in effluent solids emissions and indicates that, for this period, the outfalls dominated sedimentation of organic carbon on the shelf. The dechne in emissions of suspended solids from the outfalls after 1971 became a matter of concern because of the potential for remobilization of heavily contaminated sediments that had been laid down in earlier years. 

A related and more general difference concerns the treatment of cut-offs when is it acceptable to exclude small components of the total carbon footprint Cut-offs are ruled out in PEF (EU, 2013) but acceptable in 1SO14044 depending on their total mass or environmental significance. PAS2050 sets a quantitative threshold 95% of the total anticipated emissions must be included along with any one source that contributes at least 1% of the anticipated total. 

To gain a comprehensive view of the true environmental impacts of products and processes requires life cycle assessment (LCA) studies to be performed. Parameters that are measured as part of a LCA include total cradle mass (amount of materials taken from the earth), energy requirements, greenhouse gas emissions (GHG), photochemical ozone creation (POCP), eutrophication, acidification, and total organic carbon (TOC). ° Full LCA is extremely time-consuming and life cycle inventory (LCI) data is often difficult to acquire, in particular for bioprocesses in terms of substrates and enzymes. ... 

Equation (4) states that, to quantify the combustion efficiency, the volume fractions of carbon monoxide and the total hydrocarbon (methane equivalents), the mass flow and the stoichiometry of conversion gas, and the volume flows of primary and secondary air need to be measured. The concept of combustion efficiency is a function of emissions, air dilution, and type of fuel. This concept can be applied to any type of continuous combustion system and any type of fuel. 

---