The United States of Oxidation

An atom walks into a bar, and the bartender says You look upset Is everything okay  

This joke hinges on the fact that when an atom loses an electron, it becomes a positively charged ion (also known as a cation). Jokes aside, this chapter is all about electronic bookkeeping. In chemistry, electrons underlie almost all reactions, whether they are being excited, forming bonds, and so on. Oxidation states are simply a way to keep track of where all those electrons are going. 

Oxidation and reduction are processes that describe when an atom transfers an electron. If the atom gains an electron, it s reduced if the atom donates an electron, it s oxidized. 

There are two primary mnemonics (memory aides) to help remember which is which  

Redox reactions are the principle way that nearly all the elements are purified after they have been extracted as minerals. 

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There are 12 producers of ethylene oxide ia the United States. Table 9 shows the plant locations, estimated capacities, and types of processes employed. The total U.S. production capacity for 1992 was ca 3.4 x 10 metric tons. The percentages of total domestic production made by the air- and oxygen-based processes are ca 20 and 80%, respectively. The largest producer is Union Carbide Corp. with approximately one-third of the United States ethylene oxide capacity. About 94% of domestic ethylene oxide capacity is located on the Gulf Coast near secure and plentiful ethylene suppHes. Plans for additional U.S. production ia the 1990s have been announced by Union Carbide (incremental expansions), Eormosa Plastics (at Pt. Comfort, Texas), and Shell (at Geismar, Louisiana) (101). 

C04-0130. Propylene oxide is used primarily in the S3mthesis of poly(propylene glycol), a pol Tner used in the manufacture of automobile seats, bedding, and carpets. Around 2 billion kilograms of this compound are produced annually in the United States. Propylene oxide is produced by the following reaction ... 

Dahlin, D.C. et al. (1984) N-acetyl-p-benzoquinone imine a cytochrome P-450-mediated oxidation product of acetaminophen. Proceeding of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 81 (5), 1327-1331. 

Measurement of Heat of Combustion. In boiler practice, the heat of combustion of a fuel is the amount or heat, expressed in Btu, generated by the complete combustion (or oxidation) of a unit weight (I pound in the United States) of fuel. Calorific value or fuel Btu value are other terms used. 

United States.—The principal deposits are in South Carolina, Florida, Tennessee, Arkansas, Utah and Wyoming. The South Carolina deposits are of Miocene age and occur both as land and river rock. They contain 25 to 28 per cent, of phosphoric oxide and 35 to 42 per cent, of lime. They were the earliest to be exploited, namely, from 1868 onwards, and in 1893 they furnished about one-fifth of the world s supply. Since this date the production has declined, while that of Florida has greatly increased. In 1913 Florida and Tennessee together produced some 96 per cent, of the total output from the United States of America. The hard-rock deposits of Florida are of Tertiary age, and they run parallel to the coast for 144 miles. After concentration by mechanical means they contain usually from 77 to 79 per cent, of calcium phosphate (more rarely up to 82 per cent.) with 3 per cent, of oxides of iron and alumina, some calcium fluoride and other constituents, and 3 per cent, of moisture. The best grades of Tennessee rock were guaranteed to contain 72 per cent, of calcium phosphate, and 65 per cent, is common. The soft rock is a phosphatic clay. The river pebbles are dark grey to black and are very cheaply obtained by dredging. 

There are several theoretical methods available to study the electronic state of oxide materials, including band calculations and molecular orbital methods, In the band approach, randomness is a problem since translational symmetry of the unit cell is required a... 

Kuypers, M. M. M., Lavik, G., Woebken, D., Schmid, M., Fuchs, B. M., Amann, R., Jorgensen, B. B., and Jetten, M. S. M. (2005). Massive nitrogen loss from the Benguela upweUing system through anaerobic ammonium oxidation. Proceedings of the National Academy of the United States of America 102, 6478—6483. 

The need to model this distribution means that it is difficult to theoretically study the electronic states of oxide glasses. There are several ways to theoretically study the electronic state of oxide materials, these include band calculations and molecular orbital methods. (9-13) The randomness is a problem for the band approach because it requires translational symmetry of the unit cell a large super-cell may be chosen, but this is at the cost of increased computer time and possible spurious interactions between cells. On the other hand, the molecular orbital (MO) approach is usually applied to isolated molecules, (14-16) and can not handle infinite numbers of atoms as in the solid state. The embedded potential method is one of the improvements in moleculeir orbited methods which have been introduced in order to study solid state materials. (17) Basically, the cluster Hamilto-... 

Most of the methyl ethyl ketone (d ° 0.805t3 mp —819 0, bpt013 = 79.6°Q manufactured worldwide is produced by the dehydrogenation of secondary butanol Smaller quantities me obtained as a by-product of the oxidation of a-butane to acetic add. This is the case in the United States of Celanese in its Pampa, Texas, plant (40,000 t/year) and of Union Carbide in Brownsville, Texas (35,000 t/year). Plants of this type built in Western Europe have been shut down, including the Kooas plant in the Netherlands (20.000 year at Europoort) which was closed in 1979. 

Shafirovich, V. and S. V. Lymar (2002) Nitroxyl and its anion in aqueous solutions Spin states, protic equilibria, and reactivities toward oxygen and nitric oxide. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 99, 7340-7345 Sharkey, T. D. (1991) Stomatal control of trace gas emission. In Trace gas emissions by plants (Eds. T. D. Sharkey, E. A. Holland and H. A. Mooney), Academic Press, San Diego, pp. 335-339... 

Knozinger, H. (1976b). Specific Poisoning and Characterization of Catalytically Active Oxide Surfaces, In Advances in Catalysis, D.D. Eley, H. Pines, P.B. Weisz, (Ed.), pp. 184-271, Academic Press, Inc, ISBN 0-12-007825-2, New York, The United States of America... 

Normally the atmospheric concentration of NOg is a few parts per hillion (ppb) or less most of the nitrogen oxides formed during lightning storms are washed out by rain. This is one of the ways nitrogen is made available to plants. Looking at all the sources of oxides of nitrogen (Table 4.2), it is apparent that combustion processes are their primary sources. In the United States, most oxides of nitrogen from sources other than nature are produced from fossil fuel combustion in vehicles, industry, and power plants. 

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