Sustainable plantations

Table 2 Annual energy input for sustainable plantation system.

Barker M, Safford R, Burgner S, Edwards C (2009) Industrial uses for crops baoplastics. Leaflet of HGCA project report no. 450 Industrial uses for crops Markets for bioplastics Barnard GN, Sanders JK (1989) The poly-fS-hydroxybutyrate granule in vivo. A new insight based on NMR spectroscopy of whole cells. J Biol Chem 264 3286-3291 Basiron Y (2007) Palm oil production through sustainable plantations. Eur J Lipid Sci Technol 109 289-295... 

Basiron, Y. (2007). Palm oil production through sustainable plantations. Eur. 

Several studies estimate the potential of available virgin and waste biomass as energy resources (Table 4) (10). In Table 4, the projected potential of the recoverable materials is about 25% of the theoretical maximum woody biomass is about 70% of the total recoverable potential. These estimates of biomass energy potential are based on existing, sustainable biomass production and do not iaclude new, dedicated biomass energy plantations that might be developed. 

The severity of its attack has been discussed by numerous writers—Ward (90), Large (31), Venkatarayan (84), Wellman (93, 99), Africa (1), and Alvarado (3). It has caused phenomenally serious devastation in certain countries where it first attacked. The classic example is Ceylon, where it reduced yields from 450 pounds per acre to 200 and less within 10 years. Planters sustained losses of 2,000,000 per annum for years until they finally abandoned coffee and started work with other crops. At one time Java produced 165,000,000 pounds annually of Arabian coffee after Hemileia attacked, the plantations had to be abandoned. It was only after introducing low quality but more resistant Robusta, moving the Arabica plantations to very high regions, and spraying, that Java coffee again developed into an export crop. 

None of the analysed standards requires the adoption of any of the unconventional salinity control methods that are emerging from recent research, such as phase farming, Oil Mallee plantations, and other agroforestry practices. While NASAA explicitly accepts and encourages contributions from science to overcome sustainability issues, there is no indication that the other organizations are on the lookout for innovative strategies. 

This chapter considers large-scale industrial tree plantations, as well as small- and medium-scale plantations for timber and land rehabilitation. Aspects that influence plantation sustainability are emphasized, and suggestions are given regarding plantation design and management. 

Montagnini, F., and F. Sancho. 1994. Above-ground biomass and nutrients in young plantations of four indigenous tree species implications for site nutrient conservation. Journal of Sustainable Forestry 1 115-139. 

It is apparent that the formation of these substances is not limited to any one family or type of biomass. Interestingly, certain species in the Euphorbiaceae family, which includes H. brasiliensis, have been reported to form terpene liquids at a yield of 8 dry wt % of the plant and a minimum of 25 bbl/ha-year (10 bbl/ac-year) (Calvin 1978, 1987). As will be shown later, many ot these products are suitable as motor tuels or feedstocks for upgrading to motor fuels. Gasoline plantations are thus not totally in the realm of science fiction (Maugh, 1976, 1979). It is necessary to emphasize, however, that in order for a liquid hydrocarbon yield of 25 bbl/ha-year to be sustained in the field, the yield of dry biomass per unit growth area must be about 42.1 t/ha-year (18.8 ton/ac-year) when 8 wt % of the dry plant is terpenes. 

The projections of liquid hydrocarbon yields from the Brazilian tree C. multijuga in plantation settings and the yields of biocrude from E. lathyris and E. tirucalli have been quite optimistic. However, the main difficulties with the concept of natural hydrocarbon production from biomass are that most of the species that have been tested exhibit low liquid yields compared to the mass of biomass that must be harvested, and the naturally produced liquids are complex mixtures and not pure hydrocarbons (or glycerides). Moreover, the relationship between the minimum hydrocarbon content of dry biomass and biomass yield required to sustain a terpene yield of 25 bbl/ha-year tends to preclude sustainable production at this level. This is perhaps best illustrated by Fig. 10.2. The curve is constructed by assuming the density of terpene hydrocarbons is in the range 0.1347 t/bbl, which is the literature value for... 

Short Rotation Forestry has relative good potential to be used in non arable land and provides a sustainable approach to energy (22), however, since the land has to be blocked for about 15-20 years, fanners in the EU are reluctant to implement SRF schemes. The only exceptions are Sweden, where there is a long tradition for SRF mostly for pulp and paper and the UK where recently successful schemes have been introduced to the farming community (23). The USA (24) has also an ambitious programme for the development of SRF while Canada also has carried out significant work and is examining various SRF implementation schemes. Brazil has successfully established eucalyptus plantations (23). On the other hand, very few tests have been carried out with SRF feedstocks and the industry is a somewhat uncertain about the properties of SRF fuels. A sensitive area is that of heavy metals some of which are easily up taken by the plants (e.g. cadmium). 

Let us consider the effect of C02 reduction in power generation with biomass produced by sustainable biomass plantation. Table 4 summarizes the results. The C02 emission in plantation is a value estimated according to the assun tion described previously. Surely the construction of a power plant is necessary for biomass power generation, and the energy required in the building of a power plant and the accompanying C02 emission should be calculated. 

Bioenergy is expected to become one of major energy resources for sustainable development of mankind. However, bioenergy supply potential cannot be infinite since land area available for biomass production is limited and a certain amount of biomass must be reserved for food and material. However, bioenergy can be produced not only from biocnergy plantations, which occupy land, but also from biomass residues (such as straw, animal dung, and wood scrap) which do not occupy land directly. These biomass residues are discliarged at various processes in biomass flow from harvest to consumption. 

In the subroutine describing the recycled inputs, the nutrient value (N, K and P) of the ash and sludge recycled from the boilers and digesters is estimated and compared to the amounts required by the plantation to maintain sustained yields. 

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