State-of-the-art apparatus

When a relatively skilled operator performs experiments carefully, the methods described in Sections 4.1-4.5 can give sufficiently reliable results for filter design work. In some cases it is possible to obtain data for sequential operations such as those performed in filter cycle operations, however, performing these tasks manually is difficult and can introduce significant errors unless care is taken. It is probably fair to say that a significant proportion of previous filtration research and data acquisition by 

The use of computer control allows sequential filter cycle data to be acquired in a repeatable and reliable manner with a minimum of operator interference. By defining the desired cycle phases through a software algorithm, a cake formation phase can be directly followed by the chosen combination of washing and deliquoring. The real time measurement of experimental parameters also allows continuous display of results and the use of on-line analysis techniques as an experiment proceeds. 

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These limitations have recently been eliminated using solid-state sources of femtosecond pulses. Most of the femtosecond dye laser teclmology that was in wide use in the late 1980s [11] has been rendered obsolete by tliree teclmical developments the self-mode-locked Ti-sapphire oscillator [23, 24, 25, 26 and 27], the chirped-pulse, solid-state amplifier (CPA) [28, 29, 30 and 31], and the non-collinearly pumped optical parametric amplifier (OPA) [32, 33 and 34]- Moreover, although a number of investigators still construct home-built systems with narrowly chosen capabilities, it is now possible to obtain versatile, nearly state-of-the-art apparatus of the type described below Ifom commercial sources. Just as home-built NMR spectrometers capable of multidimensional or solid-state spectroscopies were still being home built in the late 1970s and now are almost exclusively based on commercially prepared apparatus, it is reasonable to expect that ultrafast spectroscopy in the next decade will be conducted almost exclusively with apparatus ifom conmiercial sources based around entirely solid-state systems. 

Detailed descriptions of state-of-the-art apparatus and experimental procedures can be found in the literature for D.C. [124] and A.C. [133] conductivity detection. 

Figure 4.18 Schematic of a state-of-the-art apparatus for investigating the filtration, displacement washing and gas deliquoring phases of the filter cycle. (1) suspension feed vessel (2) wash liquor feed vessel (3) filter cell (4) rotary index table (5) electronic balance (6) pressure regulator. The inset photograph shows fully automated apparatus for obtaining filtration and deliquoring data including facility for transient measurements of cake growth and state.

Figure 4.19 Schematic of a state-of-the-art apparatus for investigating the filtration and consolidation phases of a filter cycle.

The CID apparatus for threshold energy determinations used in the present work was not capable of producing state-of-the-art accuracy in the determinations. Advances in the combination of ES with energy threshold CID should make this technique of outstanding thermochemical importance. 

For around 20 years now, numerous standards and recommendations have been drawn up at national and international level and revised, whenever necessary, in accordance with the state of the art. These standards and recommendations must be observed whenever use is made of vacuum equipment (pumps, gauges, valves, etc.) and vacuum apparatus, systems and plants are assembled. They not only contain specifications applying specially to vacuum technology, but also go beyond this specific field and involve, for example, physical units, formulas, noise protection regulations, etc. 

Future experimentalists will come to regard deconvolution as an essential tool in the standard repertoire. Through deconvolution they will make otherwise-expensive observations with inexpensive instruments. The limits of state-of-the-art experimental apparatus will be extended. This progress, in turn, will produce data that cannot fail to reveal phenomena that would otherwise lie hidden. The new experimental results will stimulate advances in physical theory, thereby providing incentives for better and better apparatus. Because of its applicability across disciplinary lines, deconvolution will play a key role in the advancement of all branches of science that yield to the tools of measurement. 

Perez-Vilar J. (2008) Formation of Mucin Granules. In The Golgi Apparatus. State of the Art 110 years After Camilo Golgi s Discovery (Mironov A. Pavelka M., eds.) Springer-Verlag, Viena/New York, pp. 535-562. 

Fluorescence lifetime measurements are an important aspect of photophysical research. In the past few months the phase-shift measurement technique has become more widely used. This is largely due to the successful achievement of a multifrequency modulation apparatus. An apparatus made from commercially available components has been described and shown to have an accuracy of 10 ps. The performance was checked using mixtures of acridine and quinine sulphate and least-squares-ht procedures. A series of papers from the Illinois group give very detailed account of the state of the art and show the power of the method. The colour delay error arising from the wavelength error in photodetectors can be determined and fluorescence decay times can be obtained with an accuracy of a few picoseconds. ... 

To have an inventive step the invention, when compared with what is already known, i.e. the state of the art , must not be obvious to someone with good knowledge and experience of the subject - generally referred to in the trade as the man skilled in the art . Further, it must be capable of being industrially applied , and must therefore be either an apparatus or device, a product or substance, or an industrial process or method of operation. 

In summary, we have combined state of the art optical multichannel analysis techniques with the well established method of electron pulse radiolysis to construct a pulsed laser Raman spectrometer for time resolved studies of transient intermediates in solution. This apparatus can be applied to time resolve the vibrational spectral overlap between transients decaying at differ-... 

The relatively low thermal stability of the acetylene precursors inspired the search for a more stable, masked ethynyl group that can be quantitatively converted into acetylenes in the gas phase of the pyrolysis apparatus. Presently, the state of the art consists in the substitution of ethynyl groups by chloroethenyl substituents [54b -f, 55,56]). The latter show a higher thermal stability and are conveniently available from acetyl derivatives by reaction with PC15 or from tri-methylsilyl (TMS)-substituted acetylenes by treatment with hydrochloric acid in glacial acetic acid (see Scheme 8). 

The design criteria for high-pressure probes for solid-state NMR are, in general, different to those for liquid- or gas-state NMR. On the one hand, more extreme conditions of temperature and pressure are often needed to study, for example, structural phase transitions. On the other hand, the NMR resonances in solids are normally extremely broad compared to those in liquids, so that high resolution is no longer a primary consideration. We present here two designs of probe that demonstrate these different criteria, and show state-of-the-art high-pressure solid-state NMR apparatus. 

FIGURE 114. From French s The Art of Distillation (a) Apparatus for distilling spirit of salt (hydrochloric acid), a very biting serpent indeed (b) State-of-the-art still with water-cooled condenser for distilling volatile liquids. Similar apparatus are still found in the hills of Kentucky and West Virginia. 

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