Spruce tree

The aim for tree breeders and forest managers is to define and grow a plantation which will be elastic in its response to the large stresses induced by high wind speeds. Petty Swain (1985) have established models of the stress-strain responses of forest trees which may be used to define the sizes and morphologies of trees, for a defined range of wind speeds and elastic responses. A typical response of a plantation grown spruce tree to wind speed is shown on Fig. 2. This is a classic stress/strain curve, with an... 

That Al3+ is the main toxic agent in many acidified lakes is supported by observations of improved fish survival rates when the silica content of the water is increased, as dissolved silica can form either soluble or insoluble aluminosilicates (see Section 7.6). Mobilized aluminum has also been linked to forest damage, since, in sufficient concentration, it is directly toxic to roots of spruce trees and many other plants. 

In measurements of the fate of phosphamidon applied as an aqueous solution on spruce trees (Picea glauca spp) (3) it was shown that while there were measurable residues on the trees a rapid loss of the chemical occured. The rapid decrease in concentration (ppm wt/wt) was partially attributed to a dilution effect from the rapidly expanding new foliage. 

Binders (to hold the granule shape) include ethyl acetate, and rosin (also called colophony the sap or sticky substance from pine or spruce trees). 

Data for birch and spruce trees, dandelion (Taraxacum officinale L.) directly correspond to soil analyses whereas the Ln patterns of the data set provided by Markert are related to average REE contents of Central European soils. If Mg/Mn is about 5 already in soil - which frequently is the case - = -0.07... 

An example of a highly efficient interception system is the canopy of a coniferous forest. The large specific surface area of pine and spruce trees exceeds that of broadleaved deciduous trees, giving them a high scavenging efficiency for radioactive aerosol particles. Pine needles have been acknowledged as useful monitors of atmospheric pollution (Eriksson et al., 1989). However, radionuclides will be redistributed in the forest ecosystem due to various removal mechanisms such as rain... 

Strontium isotopes have also been used in the investigation of wood and maize (com) at the ancient site of Pueblo Bonito in Chaco Canyon by geologists in Arizona and Colorado. This ancient, multistory apartment complex housed approximately 1,000 people from ad 850-1200. The pine, fir, and spruce trees that pro-... 

A series of five stones were selected for each test wall. One wall is located on a rock ledge fully exposed to the elements and is near the aerometric station. Twenty-five meters away, the second site is located at the extreme down-canyon side of Spruce Tree House Ruins which is under the protection of rock overhang. At each site is an array of sandstone specimens cored out of a single sandstone block. Four cores each are mounted in fused quartz holders which themselves are held in an acrylic rack. A single holder with four cores is removed each month and subjected to a variety of chemical analyses. 

The meteorological sensors are mounted at the top of a 7 m tower, located in a clearing 40 m south of Spruce Tree House. The sensors are thus about 5 m above the elevation of the test walls, and just above the forest canopy within the canyon. The exposure of the instruments was chosen to reflect accurately the specific environment experienced by the test walls and Spruce Tree House. The non-intensive experiments are located in the same clearing, on a separate mast about 2.5 m tall. In addition, temperature transducers and surface time-of-wetness sensors have been mounted on the test walls. These parameters are also recorded on digital tape. 

Roberntz, R, and Slockfors, ). (1998). Effects of elevated CO concentration and nutrition on net photo.synthesis,. stomatal conductance and needle respiration of field-grown Norway spruce trees. Tnv Physiol. 18, 233-241. 

Figure 8. Distribution of Cd, Pb and Zn in above-ground parts of a 55-year-old spruce tree Picea abies) from an uncontaminated site in Bielefeld, Germany. The stem height was 24.5 m and diameter at breast height was 25 cm. After Walkenhorst and Hagemeyer (1997).

An example of the latter, the measurement of element quantities instead of concentrations is presented in Fig. 8. Total contents of Cd, Pb and Zn were determined in above-ground parts of a 55-year-old spruce tree (Walkenhorst and Hagemeyer, 1997). The distributions of the elements among different parts of the tree varied significantly. The largest part of Cd (>87%) was found in wood of stem and branches. On the other hand, Zn was more evenly distributed. The needles contained only minor portions of the studied elements (<11%). Such measurements should be repeated at different times of the growing season in order to elucidate flows and seasonal fluctuations in the storage capacity of the different parts of the trees. 

Walkenhorst, A., Hagemeyer, J., 1997. Distribution of Cd, Pb, and Zn in above ground pads of a 55-year-old spruce tree (Picea ahies [L.] KARST.). Angew. Bot. 71, 164-167. 

Although it is difficult to separate the effects of air pollution from other stresses, recent research shows that acidic deposition appears to have contributed to the decline of red spruce trees throughout eastern North America and sugar maple trees in central and western Pennsylvania in the United States. Symptoms of tree decline include poor crown condition, reduced tree growth, and unusually high levels of tree mortality. 

Wilson, E.J. and Skeffington, R.A. (1994). The effects of excess nitrogen deposition on young Norway spruce trees. Part II The vegetation. Environmental Pollution, 86, 153-160. 

TOSCANO UNDERWOOD, C.D., PEARCE, R.B., Astringin and isorhapontin distribution in Sitka spruce trees.. Phytochemistry, 1991,30,2183-2189. 

CHRISTIANSEN, E., KROKENE, P., BERRYMAN, A.A., FRANCESCHI, V.R., KREKLING, T., LIEUTIER, F., LONNEBORG, A., SOLHEIM, H., Mechanical injury and fungal infection induce acquired resistance in Norway spruce.. Tree Physiol, 1999, 19, 399-403. 

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