Some Very Special Applications

The most widely used method of IF in pathology is indirect IF. However, in some very specialized applications direct IF has been used for localization of IgG in immune complexes along the dermal-epidermal junction of skin biopsies from patients suffering from systemic lupus erythematosus (6). 

The International Cadmium Association (ICdA) in Brussels, Belgium, made an estimate of cadmium consumption for different end uses in 2001. Batteries account for 75%, pigments 12%, coatings and plating 8%, and stabihzers for plastics and similar purposes 4%. The remaining small amount of cadmium, 1%, is used in some very special applications such as nonferrous alloys and as cadmium telluride (CdTe) for electronic compounds. 

Despite dramatic progress in the scientific domain, relatively few enantiose-lective catalytic reactions are used on an industrial scale today [14, 15]. A major reason for this is that the application of enantioselective catalysts on a large scale presents some very special challenges and problems [22, 23]. Some of these problems are due to the special situation for manufacturing chiral products, while others are due to the nature of the (enantioselective) catalytic process. Whether a synthetic route containing an enantioselective catalytic step can be considered for a particular product is usually determined by the answer to two questions [23, 24] ... 

There are some very special characteristics that must be considered as regards colloidal particle behavior size and shape, surface area, and surface charge density. The Brownian motion of particles is a much-studied field. The fractal nature of surface roughness has recently been shown to be of importance (Birdi, 1993). Recent applications have been reported where nanocolloids have been employed. Therefore, some terms are needed to be defined at this stage. The definitions generally employed are as follows. Surface is a term used when one considers the dividing phase between... 

In materials such as catalysts where surface properties are of importance it should be possible to alter or enhance activity by use of ionizing radiation. Investigations of the possibility of using radiation to achieve graft polymerizations have recently been initiated. For this application ionizing radiation enjoys some very special advantages. 

The application of homogeneous enantioselective catalysts on a technical scale presents some very special challenges and problems [3, 4, 6, 7], Some of these problems are due to the special manufacturing situation of the products involved, others to the nature of the enantioselective catalytic processes. 

Certain anaerobic bacteria capable of producing hydrogen may, under special circumstances, contribute to hydrogen embrittlement of some alloys. Once again, if such mechanisms operate, they have very limited applicability in most cooling water systems. 

Detailed illustrations and examples are used throughout to develop basic statistical methodology for dealing with a broad area of applications. However, in addition to this material, there are many specialized topics as well as some very subtle areas which have not been discussed. The references should be used for more detailed information. Section 8 discusses the use of statistics in statistical process control (SPC). 

FFF is still a growing area of research and there are specific fields of application pushing toward innovations both in terms of instrumentation and methodology. For example, MgFFF has been developed specifically for stem cell research, and FIFFF (either FIF FIFFF or AsFlFFF and traditional FIFFF) is driven overall by pharmaceutical-biological applications. In addition, as for others analytical techniques, the new tendency for FFF is toward miniaturization of the instruments. As examples we cite the hollow fiber channel for FIFFF [49], the microthermal unit developed by Janca [50], the microthermal-electrical unit by Gale and coworkers [51], or the SPLITT cells by Hoyos and coworkers [52]. In this regard, we should say that some important but very specialized topics were not reviewed here such as the SPLITT cells and separation channels similar to FFF that are useful for preparative aims, as they would require a detailed description which has already been reported in books and reviews [53,54]. 

Some particular processes can require very high pressures for special applications (i.e. in explosive welding and plating), but pressures between 100 and 1000 bar can be found easily in different industrial processes. Typical examples are the synthesis of ammonia, the synthesis of methanol and the production of low-density polyethylene, but also analytical techniques as high-pressure liquid chromatography. Other important implications are for the storage and transportation of fluids and enhanced oil recovery. 

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