Sodium salt intake estimation

Dietary intake surveys typically do not include estimates from salt substitutes and supplements. However, less than 10% of those surveyed in NHANES-III reported using salt substitutes or a reduced-sodium salt. Because a high dietary intake of potassium can be achieved through diet rather than pills and because potassium derived from foods also comes with bicarbonate precursors, as well as a variety of other nutrients, the preferred strategy to achieve the recommended potassium intake is to consume foods rather than supplements. 

Source Pietinen, P (1982) Estimating sodium intake from food consumption data. Ann Nutr Metab, 26 90-99 Gregoy J, Foster K, Tyler H, Wiseman M. The Dietary and Nutritional Survey of British Aduits. HMSO (London, 1990). Sanchez-Castillo et at. (1996) Salt intake and blood pressure in rural and metropolitan Mexico. Archives of Medical Research 27 559-566. 

Sodium intake g day (mmol day ) Estimated salt intake gday Sodium intake g day (mmol day ) Estimated salt intake gday ... 

Table 7 shows the estimated changes with age in blood pressures as the salt intake is increased by 100 mmol sodium per day. Epidemiologists concerned with the subtle but substantial population effects are mostly of the opinion that salt is an important causal factor in determining the steady increase in average blood pressure and the prevalence of hypertension in Western societies. 

Adequate dietary intakes of sodium and chloride for the adult are estimated to be 1.1-1.3 and t.7-5.1 g per day, respectively. These dietary salts are needed to replace obligatory losses in the urine and small losses in the sweat. Most of the sodium and chloride ions in the diet are absorbed by the jejunum and ileum only about 5% is lost in the fcccs. 

Ssalt-sensitive people tend to develop hypertension with an intake of 125 to 250 mmol of Na per day, whereas salt-resistant people may not have a rise in blood pressure with up to 500 irunol of Na per day. Very large amounts of Na (800 mmol/day) lead to hypertension in both salt-sensitive and -insensitive people. It has been estimated that close to 20% of adult Americans lire salt sensitive. African-Americans have a greater incidence of Na sensitivity and hypertension than Americans of European descent. Generally, blood pressure tends to increase with age in salt-sensitive individuals consuming mrrderate or high levels of sodium. The prevalence of hypertension is very low in children and adolescents. The interracial differences in blood pressure that are found in adults arc not found among children (Sinaiko, 1996). 

Salt is the most common food seasoning. Some estimates say that 60 percent of the average American s sodium intake comes from salting food at the table. 

It has been estimated that the average American ingests 7.5-10 g of salt (NaCl) each day. Because NaCl is about 40% (by mass) sodium ions, this amounts to 3-4 g of sodium daily. Until 1989 the Food and Nutrition Board of the National Academy of Sciences National Research Council s defined estimated safe and adequate daily dietary intake (ESADDl) of sodium ion was 1.1-3.3 g. Clearly, Americans exceed this recommendation. 

The Food and Nutrition Board has removed the three electrolytes from its table of estimated safe and adequate daily dietary intake because sufficient information is not available to establish a recommended amount. The major dietary source of sodium and chloride is table salt (40% sodium and 60% chloride). Physicians still recommend that the intake of sodium be restricted to 1-2 g daily. The recommended intake of chloride is approximately 1.7-5.1 g daily. However, getting enough sodium and chloride is not a problem. In fact, sodium intake in the United States is about 5-7 g/day, far in excess of the 1-2 g/day required by a normal adult. 

The mean daily intake of salt in Sweden in 2006 was 12 g, corresponding to 60 pg iodine. It has been estimated that about 75% of Swedish households use iodine-supplemented salt, whereas the use of iodized salt in ready-made food is limited and rapidly diminishing, because of European Union restrictions. High intake of sodium chloride and its association with hypertension has been recognized by the National Food Administration of Sweden, and a long-term program to reduce the total daily intake to 5 g of salt has now been launched. 

Just as helium is escaping into the atmosphere, so are salts being washed off the land and into the oceans by rain and other processes. Common salt is the chemical compound sodium chloride. The amount of sodium (in this form and others) being washed into the world s oceans is estimated at around 450 million metric tons annually. About 120 million metric tons leave the sea every year by various means. This leaves a net intake or buildup of sodium in the oceans of about 330 million metric tons yearly. The amount of sodium in the oceans is estimated at about 14,700,000,000,000,000 metric tons. At the current rate of intake, if there were no sodium in the oceans at the time of their origins, the earth could not be any older than about 45 million years old. It is understood that rates could fluctuate, but given the most generous rates of intake and outflow, it could not be older than 62 million years. These are absolute maximum dates, not the actual dates. ... 

Salty substances exhibit a variety of pharmacological effects, whose character depends on the type of cation and anion. Some substances are toxic at higher concentrations. The compound consumed in the largest amount is sodium chloride. The daily intake of salt in developed countries is estimated at 8 15g. Sodium chloride supports the perception of taste of foods at the required intensity and fullness, stimulates not only receptors for salty taste, but significantly increases the perception of the sweet taste of sucrose and some other sweet substances, as well as sour taste perception, and suppresses the sensation of metaUic taste and some other... 

RECOMMENDED DAILY ALLOWANCES OF SODIUM. The salt requirements of the infant and young child are estimated to be about 120-300 mg per day. Human milk contains 161 mg of sodium per liter, whereas commonly used bottle formuleis contains between 161 and 391 mg per liter, and cow s milk contains about 483 mg per liter. Average intake of sodium during the first year of life ranges from about 300 mg per day at 2 months of age to about 1,400 mg per day at 12 months ar in excess of needs. 

---