Sodium loading

Significant improvement of tantalum powder properties was achieved by the application of molten alkali halides as solvents for potassium heptafluorotantalate, K2TaF7. Variation of the initial concentration of K2TaF7 in the melt, stirring and rate of sodium loading enable a well-controllable production of tantalum powder with a wide variety of specific charges. Heller and Martin [590] proposed the use of a reactor equipped with a stirrer in 1960. Fig. 142 shows a typical scheme of the reactor [24, 576]. All metal parts of the reactor are made of nickel or nickel alloy. 

Figure 6.4. Examples for the four types of global classical promotion behaviour. Work function increases with the x-axis. (a) Steady-state (low conversion) rates of ethylene oxide (EtO) and C02 production from a mixture of 20 torr of ethylene and 150 torr of 02 for various Cs predosed coverages on Ag(lll) at 563 K19 (b) Rate of water-gas shift reaction over Cu(l 11) as a function of sulphur coverage at 612 K, 26 Torr CO and 10 Torr H202° (c) Effect of sodium loading on NO reduction to N2 by C3H6 on Pd supported on YSZ21 at T=380°C (d) Effect of sodium loading on the rate of NO reduction by CO on Na-promoted 0.5 wt% Rh supported on Ti02(4% W03).22...

Concrete exposed to deicer salts, or to a marine environment is subjected to chloride and sodium loading. The ability of concrete to resist the penetration of chlorides and sodium is a primary design consideration in marine or cold environments. The ingress of chlorides into concrete is a major problem due to chloride-induced corrosion of the reinforcing steel and deicer salt scaling [a process by which a thin layer (< 1 mm) of concrete deteriorates from the surface of the concrete]. The penetration of sodium from sea water or deicer salts is generally... 

As nephron mass continues to decline, the sodium load overwhelms the remaining nephrons and total sodium excretion is decreased, despite the increase in sodium excretion by... 

When determining the dose of bicarbonate replacement, the goal for therapy is to achieve a normal serum bicarbonate level of 24 mEq/L (24 mmol/L). The dose is usually determined by calculating the base deficit [0.5 L/kg X (body weight)] x [(normal C02) - (measured C02)]. Because of the risk of volume overload resulting from the sodium load administered with bicarbonate replacement, the total base deficit should be administered over several days. Once the goal serum bicarbonate level is attained, a maintenance dose of bicarbonate is necessary and should be titrated to maintain serum bicarbonate levels. 

Hypertonic saline is obviously hypertonic and provides a significant sodium load to the intravascular space. This solution is utilized very infrequently given the potential to cause significant shifts in the water balance between the ECF and the ICF. It is typically considered to treat patients with severe hyponatremia who have symptoms attributable to low serum sodium. 

Valproic acid/ Modulate sodium Loading dose Half-life 50-100 mcg/mL Drowsiness, nausea, Hepatotoxicity,... 

This reabsorption occurs regardless of the sodium content of the body. In order to make adjustments in the sodium load, the reabsorption of the remaining 10% of filtered Na+ ions from the distal tubule and collecting duct is physiologically controlled by two hormones ... 

There is another system involved in blood pressure regulation the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (Fig. 2). The arterial blood pressure in the kidney influences intrarenal baroreceptors which together with the sodium load at the macula densa lead to renin liberation, angiotensin formation and aldosterone secretion, which by influencing the sodium balance changes the blood volume and influences the arterial blood pressure. 

For example, a test dose may identify a fast metabolizer, who may require a higher dose there is no evidence, however, that this approach could accelerate response, an issue that needs to be tested in controlled trials. Further, only limited evidence exists that high doses will shorten the lag period for any psychotropic agent (e.g., divalproex sodium loading dose strategy). 

The irreversible form of amphotericin nephrotoxicity usually occurs in the setting of prolonged administration (> 4 g cumulative dose). Renal toxicity commonly presents with renal tubular acidosis and severe potassium and magnesium wasting. There is some evidence that the prerenal component can be attenuated with sodium loading, and it is common practice to administer normal saline infusions with the daily doses of amphotericin B. 

Pathophysiology Non-potassium-sparing diuretics are the treatment of choice to reduce fluid retention and dyspnea. Acting at specific sites of nephrons, they inhibit sodium and water reabsorption. Loop diuretics act on the loop of Henle, producing a maximal diuretic effect equivalent to 20% to 25% of the filtered sodium load and promoting the free water clearance. Currently available loop diuretics include furosemide, bumetanide, torsemide, and ethacrynic acid. Because of their potency, they are generally effective in patients with advanced renal insufficiency (glomerular filtration rates <25 ml/min) (49). 

The stability of procainamide in glucose infusions may be improved by the addition of sodium bicarbonate. Patients receiving sodium chloride infusions of procainamide are prone to the risk of heart failure due to sodium load.121122 Quinidine gluconate is incompatible with intravenous infusion sets made of PVC due to drug loss by adsorption.123... 

Fig. 9.5 The atrial cell model of Earm and Noble [26] was subjected to sodium loading to raise intracellular sodium to a level at which intracellular calcium oscillations occurred.

H. Hofeler, D. Jensen, M. M. Pike, J. L. Delayre, V. P. Cirillo, C. S. Springer, Jr, E. T. Fossel and J. A. Balschi (1987). Sodium transport and phosphorus metabolism in sodium-loaded yeast simultaneous observation with sodium-23 and phosphorus-31 NMR spectroscopy in vivo. Biochemistry, 26, 4953-4962. 

Theoretically, a plot of S AR versus ExNa/ExCa1/2 or exchangeable sodium ratio (ESR) will produce a straight line with slope equal to KQ. The average magnitude of KG for soils of the arid west is approximately 0.015 (mmol L 1) 1/2. However, the experimental Kg appears to be dependent on pH, salt concentration, and clay mineralogy. Furthermore, the experimental KG does not appear to be constant across the various sodium loads. Commonly, as sodium load increases, KG also increases. Furthermore, as pH increases, KG decreases (Fig. 4.26). 

The SAR magnitude reflects the quantity of sodium on the exchange sites of the soil. Most arid-region soils with SAR values of 15 have approximately 15% of their CEC loaded with sodium. This sodium load is known as the exchangeable sodium percentage or ESP. Soils with an ESP greater than 15 would be considered unproduc-... 

The thiazide family, including bendrofluazide (bendroflxmiethiazide) and the related chlorthalidone, clopamide, indapamide, mefruside, metolazone and xipamide, cause 5-10% of filtered sodium load to be excreted. Increasing the dose beyond a small... 

Adverse effects of disodium edetate include hypocalcemia, tetany, convulsions, cardiac dysrhjThmias, respiratory arrest, and renal insufficiency. Other possible symptoms include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, fever, headache, and urinary urgency. Pain and phlebitis at the site of injection can occur (11). The sodium load in chelation therapy can precipitate heart failure. Renal tubular necrosis can occur (2). 

The demonstration of a renal protective effect of salt loading on AmB-induced nephrotoxicity in animal models has provided a rational basis to evaluate this simple intervention in patients. Clinical evidence supporting the ability of sodium loading to attenuate AmB-induced nephrotoxicity is derived from three sources case reports, retrospective studies and prospective studies. 

Another factor to consider is whether the patient will receive sodium supplementation as a consequence of concomitant antibiotic therapy (e.g., ticarcillin). When the opportunity to choose among several antibiotics arises, the alternative with the highest obligatory sodium load should be selected whenever possible. 

G Infusion-related toxicities secondary to amphotericin are common and may be prevented with premedication with diphenhydramine and acetaminophen. Meperidine is effective in halting rigors and muscle spasms. Thus, it is typically given in response to rigors, and not as premedication. Sodium loading with normal saline may prevent some of the renal toxicities, particularly prere-nal azotemia, associated with amphotericin and is administered prior to amphotericin. 

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