Retrospective study

Very little evidence associating water scarcity and an increase in outbreaks of faecal-oral water-borne infectious diseases exists in developed countries. A recent retrospective study performed in England provides some evidence that both low rainfall and heavy rain precede many drinking water outbreaks [3]. Yet, as stated earlier in this review, the situation is potentially different in developing countries [5-7, 9-12], where water scarcity, including droughts, leads to different circumstances that have a clear incidence in the occurrence of both water-borne and water-washed infectious diseases. 

After rapid intravenous injection of an opioid, the user experiences warm skin flushing and a rush that lasts about 45 seconds. In one retrospective study... 

Retrospective Study—A type of cohort study based on a group of persons known to have been exposed at some time in the past. Data are collected from routinely recorded events, up to the time the study is undertaken. Retrospective studies are limited to causal factors that can be ascertained from existing records and/or examining survivors of the cohort. 

Mahajna, A. et al. Blunt and penetrating injuries caused by rubber bullets during the IsraeU-Arab conflict in October 2000 A retrospective study. Lancet, 359, 1795-1800, 2002. 

Protamine. Protamine, whose use to reverse heparin anticoagulation has increased over the last two decades, has also been incriminated. Reactions may involve a number of mechanisms including IgE, IgG and complement. The incidence of anaphylactic reactions is estimated at 0.19% (retrospective studies) and 0.69% (prospective studies), respectively [27]. 

Retrospective studies involving a review of emergency department records [28], or a cross-sectional survey [29], indicate that 16-19% of people who require an initial dose of epinephrine in food-triggered anaphylaxis in community settings subsequently required a second dose. 

Addington DE, Jones B, Bloom D, et al (1993). Reduction of hospital days in chronic schizophrenic patients treated with risperidone a retrospective study. Clin Ther 15,917-26. 

No direct comparison trials have been reported between the different thrombolytic agents in acute ischemic stroke. In a retrospective review of the results for acute stroke lAT performed at our center, we have found significantly higher rates of recanalization and good clinical outcome in the era in which lA UK was used versus the era in which UK was not available and lAT with rt-PA was the primary treatment. Conversely, in another retrospective study, Eckert et al. found no major difference between the recanalization rates of UK and rt-PA. 

Many clinicians are concerned about the use of DC for dominant hemisphere strokes, but Kastrau et al. found in a retrospective review of 14 dominant hemisphere stroke patients with aphasia that significant improvement (13/14 patients) was achieved in these preselected younger patients who underwent early poststroke DC. In contrast, a retrospective study by Foerch et al. found that older patients fared quite poorly in terms of functional outcome and quality of life, especially in those with severe neurological deficit at admission. These results were replicated by Curry et al., who also found that younger patients also were more likely to require reoperations for continued herniation. Uhl et al. ° found no prognostic value to the side of infarction in their analysis of 188 patients who underwent DC for massive hemispheric infarction. 

Harscher et al. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 2006 141 (l) 31-37 Retrospective study of patients based on charts and telephone interviews 30 patients mean age of 59 who underwent craniectomy for space occupying MCA infarction Survival and functional outcome at various time points 16 patients survived mean time of 2.1 years... 

Porcella DB, Zilhoux EJ, Grieb TM, Newman JR, West GB. 2004. Retrospective study of mercury in raccoons (Procyon lotor) in South Florida. Ecotoxicology 13 207-221. 

Warfarin has not been adequately studied in non-cardioembolic stroke, but it is often recommended in patients after antiplatelet agents fail. One small retrospective study suggests that warfarin is better than aspirin.30 More recent clinical trials have not found oral anticoagulation in those patients without atrial fibrillation or carotid stenosis to be better than antiplatelet therapy. In the majority of patients without atrial fibrillation, antiplatelet therapy is recommended over warfarin. In patients with atrial fibrillation, long-term anticoagulation with warfarin is recommended and is effective in both primary and secondary prevention of stroke.12 The goal International Normalized Ratio (INR) for this indication is 2 to 3. 

Armstrong, B., Garrod, A., Doll, R., A retrospective study of renal cancer with special reference to coffee and animal protein consumption, BrJ Cancer 33, 127, 1976. 

In a recent retrospective study of spontaneous abortions in a large population of women working in the petrochemical industry in China, Xu et al. (1998) reported a significantly increased risk of spontaneous abortion with frequent exposure to petrochemicals (odds ratio of 2.7 95% Cl 1.8-3.9). When the risk associated with exposure to specific chemicals was examined, exposure to hydrogen sulfide was found to have an odds ratio of 2.3 (95% Cl = 1.2-4.4). 

Obach et al. [27] proposed a model to predict human bioavailability from a retrospective study of in vitro metabolism and in vivo animal pharmacokinetic (PK) data. While their model yielded acceptable predictions (within a factor of 2) for an expansive group of compounds, it relied extensively on in vivo animal PK data for interspecies scaling in order to estimate human PK parameters. Animal data are more time-consuming and costly to obtain than are permeability and metabolic clearance data hence, this approach may be limited to the later stages of discovery support when the numbers of compounds being evaluated are fewer. 

There is an increasing need of understanding the reasons why some cancer patients respond to chemotherapy while others experience toxicity without any therapeutic benefit. Prospective large studies with multivariate analysis will be required to confirm the results of retrospective studies that, so far, have demonstrated associations between genetic defects and response. 

In order to establish a causal relationship rather than a pure association between the suspected carcinogen Rn-d and the induced effect lung cancer it is most important to know the individual Rn-d exposure. This is the particular weakness of all these studies since these measurements were not carried out fifteen to thirty years ago, this essential information cannot be provided by any of the available retrospective studies with a sufficient degree of reliability and accuracy (Steinhausler, in press). Therefore they have to rely on indirect estimation of past Rn-d exposure levels, using e.g. inference from uranium ore content. 

Retrospective study Not possible characteristics of new fixatives differ from FFPE Possible with optimized AR... 

Porta E, Germano A, Ferrieri A, Koch M The natural history of diverticular disease of the colon A role for antibiotics in preventing complications A retrospective study. Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci 1994 16 33-39. 

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