Signal Passing

A train that passes a stop signal creates a dangerous situation, as it can result in an immediate conflict with other trains. This situation is commonly known as Signal Passed at Danger (SPAD), and some of the main reasons for the occurrence of SPAD are as follows [8]  

Each year, many SPAD-related incidents occur in railway systems around the world. For example, in the United Kingdom alone during the period 1996-1997, there were 653 SPAD-related incidents [8]. A study performed in the Netherlands of SPAD incidents occurring during the period 1983-1984 reported the following findings [7,12]  

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Loop two or more elements where a signal passes between them for measurement and/or control, eg, sensor -i- transmitter -i- control + valve device two or more elements combined for a discrete state condition, eg, block valve -i- solenoid valve -i- actuator -I- limit switches... 

Figure 2.27. Sequence of measurements to determine the C spin-lattice relaxation times of 2-octanol (42) [(CD3)2C0, 75% v/v, 25 °C, 20 MHz, inversion-recovery sequence, stacked plot]. The times at which the signals pass through zero, xo, have been used to calculate, by equation 10, the T values shown above for the nuclei of 2-octanol...

Figure 2.28 shows the anisotropy of the rotation of the pyridine ring in nicotine (46). The main axis passes through C-3 and C-6 C-6 relaxes correspondingly more rapidly (3.5 s) than the three other CH atoms (5.5 s) of the pyridine ring in nicotine, as can be seen from the times at which the appropriate signals pass through zero. 

Neuromuscular junction (NMJ) is the synapse or junction of the axon terminal of motoneurons with the highly excitable region of the muscle fibre s plasma membrane. Neuronal signals pass through the NMJ via the neurotransmitter ACh. Consequent initiation of action potentials across the muscle s cell surface ultimately causes the muscle contraction. 

The actuating signal passes through the two control elements the temperature controller and the temperature control valve. The temperature control valve responds by adjusting the manipulated variable (the cooling water flow rate). The lube oil temperature changes in response to the different water flow rate, and the control loop is complete. 

FIGURE 2.1 A diagram of a multi-photon microscope. For AF, SFIG and exogenous probe fluorescence only one laser is used. The fluorescence or SHG signal passes through a dichroic mirror to the detector(s). One or two detectors and the appropriate filters can be used to collect multiple emission signals simultaneously. A spectrometer can be placed in the detector path to collect spectra, or a polarizer can be used to collect polarization data. 

Insulin regulates both metabolism and gene expression the insulin signal passes from the plasma membrane receptor to insulin-sensitive metabolic enzymes and to the... 

Imagine that a determination is a function of two parameters, x and y. After having fixed the first parameter x to the value jq, the influence of y on the signal is studied (the signal is measured in the third dimension). It is observed that the signal passes through a maximum for the value Y. Therefore, the parameter y is set... 

For the reverse order of gates, when the signal passes first through the time gate and then through the spectral one, we have... 

Consider a message originating with a nerve receptor in the skin or in another sense organ. A nerve signal passes via a sensory neuron (afferent fiber)... 

It has been shown that by increasing r 1 the resonance frequency of each signal passes from g>a or >b to the average value (< a + o>b)/2. This transition is not smooth, and the two signals begin to collapse only for xj values very close to A co. 

As the digital signal passes through cables and other degrading elements the jitter can and will increase. More attention has been paid to these issues of late [Shelton, 1989][Lidbetter et al., 1988],... 

The detector time constant is the response time of the detector to the signal passing through it. A slower time constant will result in less apparent noise, but it will compromise signal and also resolution for closely eluting peaks. For closely eluting peaks, therefore, it is important to use a faster time constant. If there is plenty of resolution, a slower time constant will provide a smoother baseline. The effect of the time constant is illustrated in Figure 8.6. 

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