Schizophrenia prevalence

A. Breier, P. H. Berg (1999). The psychosis of schizophrenia prevalence, response to atypical antipsychotics, and prediction of outcome. Biol. Psychiatry 46 361. 

Further detailed analyses of the ECA data have been extrapolated to USA national costs (Rice and Miller, 1998). It was calculated that the economic costs of mental disorders in 1990 in the USA totalled US 147.8 billion. Anxiety disorders were the most cosdy, amounting to 46.6 billion, just under a third of the total. Direct costs spent on mental health care totalled 67 billion, of which anxiety disorders accounted for only 11 billion (16.5%). Drug costs were 2191 million, of which anxiety disorders accounted for 1167 million—over half Morbidity costs—the value of goods and services not produced because of mental disorders — amounted to 63.1 billion, with anxiety disorders accounting for 34.2 billion, 54.2% of the total. This reflects the high prevalence of anxiety disorders in the community and the high associated rate of lost productivity. In contrast, patients with affective disorders appeared better able to function (Rice and Miller, 1995). In summary, anxiety disorders are common, disruptive and costly to society drug treatment is a substantial element of treatment costs (11%) compared with, say, schizophrenia (2.2%). 

The advent of novel atypical antipsychotic drugs has sharpened the debate in the UK about the cost burden of schizophrenia to the National Health Service (NHS) and the relative cost-effectiveness of these drugs. Schizophrenia has a prevalence of about 0.5% and a lifetime risk of 1%. Because the disease affects adolescents and has a lifetime course associated with a high degree of hospital and social... 

Psychotic symptoms in late life (greater than 65 years of age) are generally a result of an ongoing chronic illness carried over from younger life however, a small percentage of patients develop psychotic symptoms de novo, defined as late-life schizophrenia. The 6-month prevalence rate of schizophrenia in the elderly is around 1%. However, other illnesses presenting with psychotic symptoms are common in this population, as approximately one-third of patients with Alzheimer s disease, Parkinson s disease, and vascular dementia experience psychotic symptoms. The majority of data for antipsychotic use in the elderly comes from experience treating these other disease states. 

Kato, M. M., Currier, M. B., Gomez, C. M. et al. (2004). Prevalence of metabolic syndrome in Hispanic and non-Hispanic patients with schizophrenia. Prim. Care Companion J. Clin. Psychiatry, 6, 74-7. 

The cholinergic system has also been implicated in schizophrenia. Cigarette smoking is remarkably prevalent among patients suffering from schizophrenia. Speculating that this may reflect a form of self-medication, Freedman and colleagues demonstrated that nicotine improved the... 

The prevalence rates of schizophrenia are lower in old age than in younger age groups (Copeland et al. 1998). The incidence of Alzheimer s disease with psychosis is much more frequent than the incidence of schizophrenia in old age (Jeste and Finkel 2000). For the frail Alzheimer s patients, medications may induce or aggravate the symptoms. 

Copeland JR, Dewey ME, Scott A et al. (1998) Schizophrenia and delusional disorder in older age community prevalence, incidence, comorbidity, and outcome. Schizophr Bull 24 (1) ... 

A variety of kinds of evidence have linked emotional behavior to hormones. Two conditions, the menstrual cycle and menopause, have been the focus of a great deal of research on human behavior. In addition, gender differences in the prevalence of mental illnesses have been used as indirect evidence for possible hormonal effects on emotional disorders. For example, depression is more common in women than in men. In contrast, a pubertal onset of schizophrenia is more common in males than females (Hafner, et al., 1993), although the lifetime occurrence of schizophrenia is approximately equal in men and women (Seeman, 1996). Effects of hormones on emotional lability in men are described above in the context of aggression. 

Antiquity. The treatment of what we now call schizophrenia probably dates back to prehistoric times. In early cnltures, madness was usually believed to result from some malevolent external force that invaded the person and took possession of the individnal. Treatment efforts would then be directed at enticing or driving out these evil spirits. This would explain the rise of shamanistic exorcisms that existed in a variety of cnltnres and remain prevalent today. In addition, it may be that trepanation (removing a piece of the skull) practiced by Stone Age peoples may have been the hrst psychosnrgery used to allow the evil sprits an avenue of escape. 

Believed historically to be a relatively rare disorder, large-scale epidemiological research undertaken during the last 20 years indicates that OCD is in fact quite common. The lifetime prevalence of OCD is 2-3%, making it more common, in fact, than bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, and most psychiatric illnesses other than depression and the substance use disorders. 

Chlorprothixene has an antipsychotic and sedative action. It has expressed antiemetic activity. It is used in various psychoses, schizophrenia, reactive and neurotic depression with prevalent anxious symptomatology, and in conditions of excitement associated with fear and stress. It may be used in small doses as a sedative agent in neurosis. Synonyms of chlorprothixene are clothixene and tarasan. 

Psychosocial morbidity association. Cannabis dependence is a prevalent comorbid substance use disorder among patients early in the course of a schizophrenia-spectrum disorder. Among 29 eligible patients, 18 participated in the study. First-episode patients with comorbid cannabis dependence (n = 8) reported significantly greater childhood physical and sexual abuse compared with those without comorbid cannabis dependence (n = 10). The result indicated the preliminary evidence of an association between childhood maltreatment and cannabis dependence among this especially vulnerable population. Child-... 

In a 1994 study Teplin evaluated 728 male jail detainees, and found that nearly two-thirds of this population had a psychiatric disorder with antisocial personality disorder (ASP), the most common diagnosis at 50%. However, 35% of the population had a current diagnosis other than ASP, and two-thirds had previously been given a lifetime diagnosis other than ASP. Substance abuse was common, with a 62% lifetime prevalence. More than one out of three detainees had a severe mental disorder (schizophrenia, bipolar affective disorder, or major depression). In another study, 693 homicide offenders were evaluated and elevated rates of schizophrenia and ASP were found (Eronen et al., 1996). Earlier studies found schizophrenia in 29%-75% and affective disorders in 4%-35% of prisoners. 

There are reports of an association between low fish consumption and increased prevalence of depression (Hibbelin, 1998). Some studies have found a reduced level of omega-3 fatty acids in depressed patients. It has also been speculated that EFAs have a role in the causation of schizophrenia and, more recently, ADHD and behavioral problems (Stevens et ah, 1996 Burgess et ah, 2000). 

Turner (1989) surveyed the literature on prevalence of schizophrenia in patients with MR and found an average rate of about 3%. As in the case of most psychiatric disorders, this greatly exceeds rates found in the general population. Turner noted that the reliability... 

Another prevalent mental disorder, schizophrenia, has also had its share of various hypotheses and medications. Some of the most interesting research avenues involve the neurotransmitter dopamine. 

Prevalent theories in the early 20th century focused on psychological causes such as traumatic experiences during childhood, but much of the later research has concentrated on genetics as well as on brain abnormaUties. Researchers have found the brains of schizophrenia patients to be slightly different from normal in a number of ways for instance, the fluid-filled cavities in the brain known as ventricles are larger. But no one has foimd what role, if any, these differences play in the onset and time course of the disease. 

Among patients with bipolar disorder, schizophrenia and major depression the prevalence of comorbid substance use disorders may be as high as 50%. Substance use disorders are usually associated with Axis [I (personality) disorders, poor treatment compliance and poorer response to pharmacotherapy exclusion or at least adequate diagnosis of these patients is therefore essential for clinical trials. 

Throughout the world, the lifetime prevalence of schizophrenia is about 1%. Although the prevalence is slightly higher in the lower socioeconomic classes, data from a number of countries indicate that the social class distribution of the parents of schizophrenic probands is similar to that of the general population ( 16,17 and 18). This supports the social drift hypothesis, which postulates that the increased concentration of patients with schizophrenia in the lower socioeconomic stratum is the result of their impaired functioning. 

Watson CG, Kucala T, Tilleskjor C, et al. Schizophrenic birth seasonality in relation to the incidence of infectious diseases and temperature extremes. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1984 41 85-90. Westergard T, Mortensen PB, Pedersen CB, et al. Exposure to prenatal and childhood infections and the risk of schizophrenia suggestions from a study of sibship characteristics and influenza prevalence. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1999 56 993-998. 

Luchins DJ. Computed tomography in schizophrenia disparities in the prevalence of abnormalities. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1982 39 859-860. 

Kety SS, Rosenthal D, Wender PH, et al. The biologic and adoptive families of adopted individuals who became schizophrenic prevalence of mental illness and other characteristics. In Wynne LC, Cromwell RL, Matthysse S, eds. The nature of schizophrenia new approaches to research and treatment New York John Wiley Sons, 1978 25-37. 

The prevalence of hyperprolactinemia in patients with chronic schizophrenia taking long-term haloperidol has been studied in 60 patients in Korea (28 women illness mean duration, 15.5 years) (472). There was hyperprolactinemia, defined as a serum prolactin concentration over 20 ng/ml in men and 24 ng/ml in women, in 40 the prevalence of hyperprolactinemia in women (93%) was significantly higher than in men (47%). There was also a... 

The effects of neuroleptic drugs on menstrual status and the relation between menstrual status and neuroleptic drug efficacy and adverse effects have been explored (744). In contrast to prior reports (SEDA-18, 50), there was not a high prevalence of menstrual irregularities or amenorrhea in 27 premenopausal women with chronic schizophrenia treated with typical neuroleptic drugs. 

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