Rhodium carbonylation reaction scheme

The silica gel-supported IL-phase catalyst could be applied in the continuous methanol carbonylation [99]. A rhodium carbonyl-functionalized IL was produced inside the silica gel-supported [BMIm]I and used as the catalytically active species for the carbonylation reaction. Scheme 2.24. At 150 °C, the conversion of methanol reached 99% if Mel was used as an additive. The major products were acetic acid (21.4%), methyl acetate (74.4%), and dimethyl ether (4.2%). 

The direct combination of selenium and acetylene provides the most convenient source of selenophene (76JHC1319). Lesser amounts of many other compounds are formed concurrently and include 2- and 3-alkylselenophenes, benzo[6]selenophene and isomeric selenoloselenophenes (76CS(10)159). The commercial availability of thiophene makes comparable reactions of little interest for the obtention of the parent heterocycle in the laboratory. However, the reaction of substituted acetylenes with morpholinyl disulfide is of some synthetic value. The process, which appears to entail the initial formation of thionitroxyl radicals, converts phenylacetylene into a 3 1 mixture of 2,4- and 2,5-diphenylthiophene, methyl propiolate into dimethyl thiophene-2,5-dicarboxylate, and ethyl phenylpropiolate into diethyl 3,4-diphenylthiophene-2,5-dicarboxylate (Scheme 83a) (77TL3413). Dimethyl thiophene-2,4-dicarboxylate is obtained from methyl propiolate by treatment with dimethyl sulfoxide and thionyl chloride (Scheme 83b) (66CB1558). The rhodium carbonyl catalyzed carbonylation of alkynes in alcohols provides 5-alkoxy-2(5//)-furanones (Scheme 83c) (81CL993). The inclusion of ethylene provides 5-ethyl-2(5//)-furanones instead (82NKK242). The nickel acetate catalyzed addition of r-butyl isocyanide to alkynes provides access to 2-aminopyrroles (Scheme 83d) (70S593). 

A simplified reaction scheme is shown in Fig. 26.5 Again, the ability of rhodium to change its coordination number and oxidation state is crucial, and this catalyst has the great advantage over the conventional cobalt carbonyl catalyst that it operates efficiently at much lower temperatures and pressures and produces straight-chain as opposed to branched-chain products. 

Pettit and coworkers—metal hydride intermediates by weak base attack over Fe carbonyl catalysts. Pettit et al.ls approached the use of metal carbonyl catalysts for the homogeneous water-gas shift reaction from the standpoint of hydroformyla-tion by the Reppe modification.7 In the typical hydroformylation reaction, an alkene is converted to the next higher aldehyde or alcohol through reaction of CO and H2 with the use of a cobalt or rhodium carbonyl catalyst. However, in the Reppe modification, the reduction is carried out with CO and H20 in lieu of H2 (Scheme 6) ... 

The simple procedure for the carbonylation of allyl halides has been extended in the high yielding solid-liquid two-phase conversion of allyl phosphates into amides (60-80%) under the influence of a rhodium carbonyl cluster in the presence of primary or secondary amines (Scheme 8.8). A secondary product of the reaction is the allylamine, the concentration of which increases as the pressure of the carbon monoxide is reduced, such that it is the sole product (ca. 80%) in the absence of carbon monoxide [28],... 

The facile formation of metal carbonyl complexes makes rhodium a very useful catalyst for both the hydroformylation of multiple bonds and the decarbonylation of the aldehydes. Two groups have independently utilized the metal carbonyl complex obtained from decarbonylation of aldehydes in the PK reaction (Scheme 11.11) [24]. 

Wenkert and Khatuya (51) examined the competition between direct insertion of a carbene into furan (via cyclopropanation) and ylide formation with reactive side-chain functionality such as esters, aldehydes, and acetals. They demonstrated the ease of formation of aldehyde derived carbonyl ylides (Scheme 4.30) as opposed to reaction with the electron-rich olefin of the furan. Treatment of 3-furfural (136) with ethyl diazoacetate (EDA) and rhodium acetate led to formation of ylide 137, followed by trapping with a second molecule of furfural to give the acetal 138 as an equal mixture of isomers at the acetal hydrogen position. 

In contrast to the reactivity of 6-dodecene-1,11-diynes, rhodium-catalyzed reaction of l-dodecene-6,11-diynes with silane led not to cascade cyclization/hydrosilylation but rather to carbonylative tricyclization. For example, reaction of 87 [X = G(G02Me)2] and dimethylphenylsilane catalyzed by Rh(acac)(GO)2 in THE at room temperature under GO gave the cyclopenta[e]azulene 88 in 92% yield as the exclusive product (Scheme 22). Although the protocol was... 

The same reaction scheme can be written for (Z) -2-phenyl-2-butene, except that paths B and E would lead to erythro and threo aldehydes. In cobalt catalysis this isomerization could explain both the lack of stereospecificity and the lack of influence of the sterochemistry of the starting olefin on the distribution of aldehydes 26 and 27. This hypothesis agrees well with results with a-ethylstyrene. On the other hand, when rhodium is used, extensive isomerization occurs less readily probably because of a better stability of alkyl- and acylrhodium carbonyls, and one can thus achieve a high degree of stereospecificity. 

The scheme reduces to its most simple form when carbon monoxide is the only ligand present in the system, because equilibria of mixed ligand/carbon monoxide complexes do not occur. The kinetics of the hydroformylation reaction using hydrido rhodium carbonyl as the catalyst was studied by Marko [20]. For 1-pen-tene the rate expression found is ... 

The hydroformylation of 1-hexene catalyzed by rhodium carbonyl has recently been studied by Lazzaroni and coworkers [21]. They were particularly interested in the influence of reaction parameters on the regioselectivity and the chemoselectivity (to aldehyde and 2-hexene). To understand their results we have to extend Scheme 6.1 by taking account of the formation of linear and branched aldehydes, as well as of isomerization. This is shown in Scheme 6.2. 

The major drawback in the development of efficient catalytic PK protocols is the use of carbon monoxide. Many groups probably refuse to use this reaction in their synthetic plans in order to avoid the manipulation of such a highly toxic gas. Carbonylation reactions without the use of carbon monoxide would make them more desirable and would lead to further advances in those areas. Once the use of rhodium complexes was introduced in catalytic PKR, two independent groups realized these species were known for effecting decarbonylation reactions in aldehydes, which is a way to synthesize metal carbonyls. Thus, aldehydes could be used as a source of CO for the PKR. This elegant approach begins with decarbonylation of an aldehyde and transfer of the CO to the enyne catalyzed by rhodium, ruthenium or iridium complexes under argon atmosphere (Scheme 36). 

To date, mechanistic studies into the carbonylations of secondary alcohols with the same type of rhodium/RI catalyst system have used 2-propanol as a model substrate. At least part of the reason for this has been to minimize the expected complexities of the product analyses. The carbonylation of 2-propanol gives mixtures of n- and isobutyric acids. Two studies have been (24b, 32) reported with this system. The first of these (32) concluded that the reactivity could be described in terms of the same nucleophilic mechanism as has been described above, despite the fact that the reaction rates at 200°C were approximately 140 times faster than predicted by this type of chemistry (24b). Other data also indicated that this SN2-type reactivity was probably not the sole contributor to the reaction scheme. For example, the authors were not able to adequately explain either the effect of reaction conditions on product distribution or the activation parameters. They also did not consider the possible contribution of a hydrocarboxylation pathway, which is known to be extremely efficient in analogous systems (55). For these reasons, a second study into the carbonylation of 2-propanol was initiated (24b, 57). 

Structure 4 is an intermediate for manufaeturing vitamin A (Scheme 2). The annual demand for vitamin A is about 3000 tons. Major producers are BASF, Hoffmann-La Roche and Rhone-Poulenc Animal Nutrition [55]. At an early stage in the synthesis BASF and Hoffmann-La Roche are using a hydroformylation step to synthesize 4 starting from l,2-diacetoxy-3-butene (5) and 1,4-di-aeetoxy-2-butene (6), respectively [56, 57]. The selectivity toward the branched product in the BASF process is achieved by using an unmodified rhodium carbonyl catalyst at a high reaction temperature. The symmetry of 6 in La Roche s process does not lead to regioselectivity problems. Elimination of acetic acid and isomerization of the exo double bond (La Roche) yields the final product 4 in both processes. 

Vedejs has iso discussed the inefficiency of copper catalysts in ylidic 3,2-sigmatropic processes. Optimization of ring expansion reactions using diazomalonates were found to be unsatisfactory and analogous reactions using diazoketones were totally unsuccessful. Takano has taken advantage of a rhodium-promoted ylide formation followed by a 3,2-rearrangement, in a useful synthesis of y,8-unsaturated carbonyl compounds (Scheme 45). ... 

If cobalt, rhodium and ruthenium complexes are the most frequently used in hydroformylation reactions, most carbonylation reactions employ palladium catalysts. The active water-soluble complex Pd(TPPTS)3 is easily prepared by reducing in situ PdCl2/TPPTS with CO in water at room temperature. The carbonylation of alcohols and olefins (Scheme 1.24) requires the presence... 

Although the formation of three-membered rings by cyclopropanation of olefins with metal carbenoids is commonplace, the construction of such systems via intramolecular C-H insertion is quite rare. This is because 1,2 migration of any hydride atoms a to the carbenoid center is typically very facile, rendering it inactive toward further transformations [56], It was found, however, that [i-tosyl a-diazo carbonyl compounds 37 are suitable substrates for intramolecular 1,3 C-H insertion reactions catalyzed by achiral rhodium carboxylates 25 (Scheme 6) [57],... 

Unmodified rhodium catalysts are readily formed in seCOa from simple precursor complexes such as [(CO)2Rh(acac)j, [(cod)Rh(hfacac)], or [Rh( (CO)i6] [33. The resulting rhodium carbonyl species are highly active in this medium for a range of substrates including simple olefins, vinyl arenes and polar substrates such as aUyl acetate. Especially the reaction rates for internal C=C bonds are remarkably higher than those observed in liquid organic solvents under typical hydroformylation conditions (Scheme 12.13). 

The carbonylation of methanol in acetic acid represents an important industrial process, which has been developed by Monsanto Corporation using a homogeneous rhodium complex. Extensive investigations on the rhodium catalytic system have been carried out and Liu et al. [77] have studied the use of PVP-stabilized Rh nanoparticles for this reaction (Scheme 11.10). The stable PVP-Rh colloid presents a lower activity than Monsanto s homogeneous catalyst under the same drastic conditions (140°C, 54bar). However, the colloidal metal catalyst could be reused several times with an increased activity (TON = 19700 cydes/atom Rh), which... 

In 2002, Morimoto and Shibata independently reported the use of a rhodium carbonyl complex obtained via aldehyde decarbonylation for a Pauson-Khand type reaction (Scheme 2-17). This success prompted further investigation into CO gas-free carbonylation reactions. Lee et al. reported the use of a formate ester in the CO gas-free asymmetric Pauson-Khand type reaction. Park et reported the use of alcohol as a CO source, and Ikeda and co-workers used aldoses as a source of CO. 

The carbonylation of methanol requires catalysis of both organic and organometallic reactions. The catalytic process consists of five steps, which are shown in Scheme 17.1 for the reactions catalyzed by rhodium-carbonyl compounds (1) the reaction of methanol... 

In addition, reactions of many olefins containing electron-withdrawing functional groups at the C=C bond react to form branched substitution products. Examples of these reactions catalyzed by rhodium-carbonyl complexes modified by PPhj are shown in Scheme i7.i4.55.io6-"3 Directed hydroformylations, such as that in Equation 17.16, have also been studied. ... 

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